A psychological test refers to a systematic procedure for comparing the behaviour of two or more people. Standardization refers to collecting a sample for the purpose of norm-referencing and it refers to the administration of a measure according to a consistent set of rules. A standardized administration is necessary to produce reliable and valid measurement.

A diagnostic schedule (e.g. rating scale) refers to a specialized psychometric method that provides a structured procedure for collecting and categorizing behavioural data that corresponds to diagnostic categories or systems. It is used to diagnose a syndrome. The goal of an instrument determines whether it is a diagnostic schedule (e.g. diagnose or not). Rating scales allow for the rapid and accurate identification of domains of behaviour that may require diagnosis or intervention.

There are several definitions used when testing children:

1. Raw score
   This refers to the sum

Listening skills are used to give the client an opportunity and encouragement to tell their story. Non-selective listening skills refer to skills that exert little influence and are intended to encourage and stimulate the client. The are several non-selective listening skills:

• Non-verbal behaviour
  This includes the following skills:
  • Facial expression
    This should be tailored to the individual (e.g. occasional smiling; frowning)
  • Eye contact
    The clinician should look at, or in the direction of the client most of the times but should not stare or avoid eye contact.
  • Body language
    This communicates the tenseness of the situation.
  • Encouraging gestures
    This includes nodding and using supportive hand gestures.
• Verbal following silences
  This includes the following skills:
  
  • Verbal following
    This includes ensuring that one’s comments line up as closely

The diagnosis-prescription model (i.e. client is object of research) refers to an intake model where the client answers questions asked by the clinician with little room for own input and additional thoughts. The clinician has the full control over the conversation. There is a diagnosis afterwards and this is used to prescribe a ‘solution’. The clinician takes the role of the expert and views the client in an overly goal-oriented and reductive manner. This model can occur when the client expresses the need for concrete advice and support.

The cooperation model (i.e. client is partner in counselling) refers to an intake model where the clinician works together with the client to find a solution to the problem. The clinician believes that the client should be encouraged to be self-reliant in searching for solutions for their problems and the clinician should actively and attentively help the client to

There are several characteristics of early adolescence (i.e. 10 – 14):

• Heightened emotionalism; more sensitive reactions.
• Very focused on satisfying immediate needs; acting impulsively; here and now focus.
• Separation from parents; peers become very important.
• Do not want to stand out; want to belong to the group; sensitive to peer pressure.

There are several characteristics of middle adolescence (i.e. 14 – 16):

• Inclined to take risks and experiment; sensation seeking.
• Pay little attention to consequences of behaviour.
• More individualization.
• Mood swings.

There are several characteristics of late adolescence: (i.e. 16 – 22)

• Increasingly self-aware.
• More of an identity; less susceptible to peer pressure.
• More responsible for themselves and others.
• Thinking more often wins from feelings; more future-oriented.
• Increasingly good at self-reflection.
• Sometimes for a brief moment very