Childhood: Clinical and School Psychology – Lecture summary (UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM)
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The WISC-IQ test measures the following:
The focus of an IQ test is on school-based skills (e.g. language; math; understanding; spatial skills; planning; problem-solving; logical skills) and it also measures acquired knowledge and skills. This means that an IQ test does not only measure potential but also current intelligence. It is important to assess whether deficits are the results of lack of opportunities (i.e. deprivation) or limitations in capacity.
There is not a perfect relationship between school performance and IQ as school performance may be lower than somebody’s IQ due to socio-emotional circumstances (e.g. being bullied) or other issues making school performance more problematic (e.g. dyslexia).
An IQ score is not a school advice in the Netherlands. The schools give an advice and CITO scores and IQ scores could change this advice. The traditional view of giftedness holds that a child with an IQ of 130 is gifted. The current view of giftedness holds that there needs to be high ability but not necessarily an IQ score of 130 or higher. Somebody is not only gifted if somebody has potential but also if this person shows gifted behaviour.
According to Renzulli, giftedness does not depend on a single criterion (e.g. IQ) but refers to the interaction between three clusters of traits;
This definition is applicable to any valuable area of performance (e.g. music; arts) and not just academics. People who are gifted score above average on each of the clusters but not necessarily in the superior range. Whether somebody is gifted depends on the needs and values of a culture.
Persistence in the accomplishment of ends (1), integration toward goals (2), self-confidence (3) and freedom from inferiority feelings (4) are personality factors that predict achievement among individuals with high intellect.
While intelligence on IQ test is relatively stable it does not say anything about development. Giftedness focuses on exceptional behaviour. Gifted children need educational opportunities that are normally not provided in regular instruction. However, this may be needed for all children but the outcomes differ depending on talent.
According to Gardner, there are multiple intelligences. This includes the following:
According to this view, giftedness includes a biopsychological potential to process information. This can be activated by the appropriate cultural setting (e.g. teachers should present lessons through a variety of methods, such as music).
Sternberg’s augmented theory of successful intelligence states that intelligence is more complex than a general ‘g’ factor. Successful intelligence refers to one’s ability to set and accomplish personally meaningful goals in one’s life given the cultural context. This requires figuring out strengths and weaknesses and capitalizing on the strengths and compensating for the weaknesses. He identified four strengths and weaknesses:
According to Sternberg, different mental processes are needed for these strengths and weaknesses:
In the Munich Model of giftedness, giftedness refers to a multi-factorized ability construct within a network of non-cognitive (e.g. motivation; interests) and social moderators which are related to the giftedness factors (i.e. predictors) and the exceptional performance areas (i.e. criterion variables).
In other words, several factors (e.g. intellectual abilities; social competence) influence talent factors. These are predictors of performance (e.g. academic achievement). The talent factors and performance are both influences by environmental conditions (e.g. family climate; quality of instruction) and non-cognitive personality characteristics (e.g. test anxiety; learning strategies).
In the universal model of giftedness (UMG), the non-cognitive personality characteristics include motivational factors (1), coping factors (e.g. learning strategies (2) and a self-concept factor (e.g. control expectations) (3). This model holds that motivation strongly influences performance. The motivational factors can be positive (e.g. curiosity) or negative (e.g. test anxiety). The environmental factors include a creative environment (1), social climate (2), pedagogical style (3) and critical events (4).
A positive self-concept is important and this requires a safe environment and good coping strategies. The self-concept influences self-efficacy. The quality of the social climate is essential for good functioning. Social support (1), educational level of the people in the climate (2), communication style(3) and clarity of roles (4) influence the social climate.
Task commitment refers to a focused form of motivation. The conflict triangle holds that every desire is accompanied by anxiety, leading to the necessity of defence or coping. Fear and anxiety are counter-motivational.
The Meerfactorenmodel (i.e. multiple factor model) states that personal factors (i.e. high capacities; motivation; creativity) and environmental factors (i.e. school; family; friends) are essential. The interaction between these factors determines the effect of capacities on behaviour. The Munich model has a greater focus on realizing potential and on the interaction between factors compared to Sternberg.
Talent development consists of talent identification and talent promotion. Abilities associated with a specific domain or talent are malleable and need to be cultivated. The domains have different developmental trajectories. This means that the begin, peak and end differ (e.g. athletics; academics). The community needs to provide opportunities at every stage in the talent-development process and the individual needs to take advantage of these opportunities. Psychosocial variables are determining factors in the successful development of giftedness (i.e. talent).
The mega-model of talent development states that talent development goes from potential to achievement to eminence. The transition across stages is mainly a function of developed psychosocial skills. Chance plays an important role in providing opportunities for talent development and successful individuals learn how to prepare themselves to capitalize on chances (e.g. making opportune connections; an action unique to the individual).
There are several myths about gifted students:
Ability (1), creativity (2), motivation (3), personality (4), emotional trauma (5), parents (6), interest (7), passion (8), opportunity (9), chance (10) and culture (11) are important factors for giftedness.
Little-c creativity refers to creative accomplishments within a set environment (e.g. a classroom). It is creativity exhibited in narrower social contexts. Big-C creativity refers to ground-breaking innovations and new products. This is creativity exhibited in a broad social context. Creative producers are people who generate new knowledge and significantly alter a field with their work.
Little-m motivation refers to the motivation involved in smaller achievement-related tasks and decisions (e.g. what course to take). These decisions accumulate over time and make eminent levels of achievement possible. Big-M motivation refers to compelling drives rooted in early experiences and underlying overarching goals (e.g. desire for fame).
People with high opportunity and low motivation are children who are talented but tend to underachieve and shy away from demanding educational opportunities. People with low opportunity and undetermined motivation may develop motivation as a result of opportunity. People with low opportunity and high motivation are at risk of not fully developing their talents. People with high opportunity and high motivation have the greatest likelihood of eminence.
According to all models, giftedness includes different types of talent and focused on the upper-end of the talent domain. Multidimensional models differentiate between capacity and performance. Different factors are included, such as personal and environmental factors which influence gifted performance (i.e. bio-ecological model). The relationship between these factors is dynamic (i.e. transactional models). More skills than only cognitive skills are needed (e.g. practical skills; social skills; creativity). Talent develops from potential to achievement to eminence.
Following these models, giftedness is related to a high IQ yet whether this talent is expressed in exceptional behaviour depends on other factors (e.g. motivation) and on environmental condition provided by peers, parents and schools. This means that a general ability is necessary but not sufficient. Cognitive and psychosocial variables are malleable and need to be cultivated. All children need to be challenged. Effort and opportunity are important at every stage of talent development.
Achievement tests are objective measures of school skills but are not sufficient to assess giftedness. Intelligence test results may be influenced by test anxiety (1), motivation (2) and a lack of focus (3). A multidimensional approach should be adopted as both functional development (e.g. IQ) and social development (e.g. motivation) need to be taken into account. Comorbidity (e.g. Asperger’s syndrome; ADHD) may mask giftedness.
Teachers have to make children enthusiastic to develop talent. Different domains have different ages as to when a child needs to start when a child peaks and when talent ends (e.g. sports; science). There are six student profiles:
Giftedness must be developed and sustained by training in domain-specific skills. The acquisition of psychological and social skills is important. There are several strategies to develop these skills:
It is important to focus on strategies when the topics become challenging. However, gifted students may also need help for things they are less good at (e.g. basic arithmetic). In the school programme, it is possible to leave the regular group occasionally (e.g. ‘Plusklas’). A possible drawback of this is distance from regular class and less positive contact with peers. This may lead to the need for social-emotional coaching. Another drawback is that in a special class for gifted students, the child is not the best anymore and this may lead to a perception of challenge or stress.
When creating a giftedness programme, it is important to not base selection on IQ scores (1), look at school achievement (2), make sure all children can join (3), look for underachievers (4), observe behaviour (5), use interviews (6), talk to parents (7) and use brain teasers (8).
Intelligence is relative to the age group and this holds for giftedness and mental disability. When it comes to low academic functioning, the number of hours of education are more important than cognitive defects.
Mental disability refers to a person with an IQ below approximately 70 and deficits in adaptive functioning. The prevalence is 1% to 3% with more males than females being diagnosed with ID. Mild intellectual delays may not be detected until formal schooling begins and comorbidity is common. The diagnosis of ADHD is only made if the symptoms of inattention are excessive for the child’s mental age and not for the child’s chronological age.
The presenting features of ID depend on the severity (1), personality (2) and behavioural characteristics (3). Self-injurious behaviour (1), aggression (2), stereotypical movements (3), communication problems (4) and overactivity (5) predict more serious problems. Environmental factors during prenatal development can cause birth defects (e.g. foetal alcohol syndrome).
There are three important factors:
To diagnose a person with ID, it is important to have somebody’s developmental and medical history. Information regarding when a child achieved developmental milestones is important and individual assessment of intellectual and adaptive functioning is necessary.
According to the AAIDD, the degree and nature of support required are central. There can be intermittent, limited, extensive or pervasive support. According to the DSM-5, mental disability regards the three factors and there are specifiers for severity levels (i.e. mild; moderate; severe; profound). According to the educational system (IDEA), a person is eligible for special education if there is a developmental delay.
A global developmental delay refers to a diagnosis that indicates that a child is not meeting developmental expectations in some areas of intellectual development. This is only given to children under the age of five and is a temporary category. A developmental delay refers to a delay of 35% or more in a developmental area or a delay of 25% of more in two developmental areas (i.e. cognitive; motor; speech; language; social; emotional development; adaptive functioning).
There are three criteria to be diagnosed with borderline mental disability:
Aggression is more common in MBID due to poorer social skills. Adaptive social behaviour depends on social information processing (SIP). This refers to the way social information is encoded (1), behaviour of others is interpreted (2), own emotions are regulated (3) and responses to the problem situation are generated, selected and enacted (4). Cognitive limitations may explain differences in SIP and selective attention (1), working memory (2) and inhibition (3) may be the most important skills for SIP. People with MBID are at risk for inadequate interpretation of others’ intentions and have inadequate SIP due to their problems with recognizing emotions.
Working memory and emotion recognition skills predict the encoding and interpretation of emotional cues. Inhibition predicts hostile intent attributions. Emotion recognition predicts the size of the repertoire of generated responses and interpretation skills predict the number of aggressive and submissive responses.
There are typically more general developmental delays with a lower IQ. With a higher IQ, there may be more severe deficits in social adaptive skills to still receive the diagnosis. Mainstreaming refers to integrating children with intellectual disabilities as much as possible in regular classes. To do this, it is important to take into account the strength-weakness profile in instruction and match this with the individual. A focused approach could minimize risk of frustration (1), behavioural problems (2), learned helplessness (3), a negative self-concept (4) and anxiety for failing (5).
There are several factors that are important for training with children with BID:
A case formulation refers to a hypothesis about why the problem behaviour exists and how it is maintained. This should be based on the longevity of the problems (1), consistency of problematic behaviour across situational contexts (2) and family history (3). Problematic behaviour is characterized by the four d’s:
The duration should also be taken into account. Clinical decisions are often taken based on measures of intensity (1), duration (2) and frequency of the behaviour relative to the norm. To have a valid diagnosis, several things need to be taken into account:
It is essential to take the developmental stage of a child into account when assessing behaviour. According to Erikson, children develop through psychosocial stages with socioemotional tasks that must be mastered to allow for positive growth across the lifespan (e.g. trust vs. mistrust). Behavioural theories state that behaviour is shaped by associations (i.e. contingencies) resulting from positive and negative reinforcement.
There are three questions that need to be answered by the clinician after assessment:
The adaptation theory states that early attachment relationships have an impact throughout the lifespan. Triadic reciprocity refers to the dynamic system between the person, the environment and behaviour where all three influence each other.
Family systems theory states that the family is a system made up of subsystems (e.g. parent and child; parent and parent). The behaviours in a system are aimed at maintaining or changing boundaries, alignment and power. A family’s degree of dysfunction can be determined by boundaries that are poorly or inconsistently defined.
The DSM is a categorical diagnostic system. It makes use of clear-cut categories as this is needed for health care service (e.g. insurance). However, there are several problems with this:
Fear refers to the emotional response to real or perceived immediate threat. Anxiety refers to the anticipation of future threat. Phobia refers to being fearful or anxious about or avoidant of a certain object or situation. There is no specific cognitive ideation.
There are four symptoms of anxiety:
The purpose of anxiety is to alarm one of danger (1), prepare the body to act quickly (2) and keep distance from the danger (3). There is no strict boundary between typical and deviant anxiety. Therefore, the four d’s need to be evaluated when assessing anxiety.
What a child is afraid of changes with age. Children may be more afraid of animals due to their magical thinking. They may be afraid of the dark because of their inability to control it. At seven or eight years old children start to become more concerned with the future.
There is an increase in the prevalence of any anxiety disorders from the age of 11. There is a strong decline in separation anxiety disorder after the age of 10. For phobias, the prevalence can reach up to 16% in adolescence.
Children who suffer from anxiety disorders will be clinging (1), show physical complaints (2), have sleep problems (3), concentration problems (4), avoid certain situations (5), demonstrate a lot of ‘just in case’ behaviour (6), feel small (7), get angry (8), get easily upset (9), demonstrate perfectionism (10), stay home from school (11), lie (12) and alarm adults (13). There is comorbidity between ADHD and anxiety disorders.
Behavioural inhibition refers to inhibited behaviour. As an infant, there is high reactivity to stimuli (e.g. crying). In preschool, these children do not approach strangers (1), stare at strangers (2) and stays close to the mother (3). Modelling behaviour is stronger in the same-sex parent.
There are several risk factors for anxiety disorders:
About 5% of the children and 2.5% of the adults are diagnosed with ADHD. There are several requirements for a diagnosis:
There are three subtypes:
Children with the inattentive presentation are often misdiagnosed and misunderstood. It is often misinterpreted as a lack of motivation. The children may be characterized by a sluggish information processing style and there are problems with focused or selective attention. These children are unable to filter essential from non-essential details. This lack of attention may result from information overload and the inability to selectively limit the focus of attention. They have poor performance on tests because of this problem with attention and their poor concept of time and time management.
Children with the hyperactive-impulsive presentation experience academic problems due to their impulsive nature. They emphasize speed over accuracy and approach tasks incorrectly because they do not wait for all instructions. They are at social risk due to their impatient nature and they often have poor social skills and difficulties making and maintaining friends. They often gravitate towards other rule-breaking children.
A difficult temperament (1), poor sleep patterns (2), excessive activity (3), irritability (4) and a difficulty soothing the child when they are upset (5) are risk factors in infancy for the development of ADHD. During toddlerhood, the child may demonstrate higher levels of underregulated behaviours and a lack of self-control may persist during the transition to preschool.
The symptom presentation of ADHD differs with age. Inattention symptoms are consistent over time but the hyperactive/impulsive symptoms decrease over time. There is
.....read moreAutism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with five criteria:
Symptoms of autism may not manifest themselves in early development if there is a mild version of the disorder. Most children with ASD will demonstrate difficulties in the key symptom clusters but the symptomatology and severity differ. The severity is based on support needed. This ranges from support to very substantial support.
In ASD, there is abnormal language development and several language difficulties are associated with ASD. The child with ASD:
There are several symptoms of Asperger’s syndrome:
While many people with Asperger’s syndrome see it as part of their identity, it was removed from the DSM-5 together with PDD-NOS (1), childhood disintegrative disorder (2) and autistic disorder (3). Asperger’s may not be severe enough to classify as part of the autistic spectrum. However, Asperger’s syndrome may be a separate category due to differences in language development.
.....read moreThe WISC-IQ test measures the following:
The focus of an IQ test is on school-based skills (e.g. language; math; understanding; spatial skills; planning; problem-solving; logical skills) and it also measures acquired knowledge and skills. This means that an IQ test does not only measure potential but also current intelligence. It is important to assess whether deficits are the results of lack of opportunities (i.e. deprivation) or limitations in capacity.
There is not a perfect relationship between school performance and IQ as school performance may be lower than somebody’s IQ due to socio-emotional circumstances (e.g. being bullied) or other issues making school performance more problematic (e.g. dyslexia).
An IQ score is not a school advice in the Netherlands. The schools give an advice and CITO scores and IQ scores could change this advice. The traditional view of giftedness holds that a child with an IQ of 130 is gifted. The current view of giftedness holds that there needs to be high ability but not necessarily an IQ score of 130 or higher. Somebody is not only gifted if somebody has potential but also if this person shows gifted behaviour.
According to Renzulli, giftedness does not depend on a single criterion (e.g. IQ) but refers to the interaction between three clusters of traits;
This definition is applicable to any valuable area of performance (e.g. music; arts) and not just academics. People who are gifted score above average on each of the clusters but not necessarily in the superior range. Whether somebody is gifted depends on the needs and values of a culture.
Persistence in the accomplishment of ends (1), integration toward goals (2), self-confidence (3) and freedom from inferiority feelings (4) are personality factors that predict achievement among individuals with high intellect.
While intelligence on IQ test is relatively stable it does not say anything about development. Giftedness focuses on exceptional behaviour. Gifted children need educational opportunities that are normally not provided in regular instruction. However, this may be needed for all children but the outcomes differ depending on talent.
According to Gardner, there are multiple intelligences. This includes the following:
According to this view, giftedness includes a biopsychological potential to process information. This can be activated by the appropriate cultural setting (e.g. teachers should present lessons through a variety of methods, such as music).
Sternberg’s
.....read moreMultilingualism refers to speaking multiple languages. It is not just a technical task which only requires a cognitive dimension as it also has emotional, social and cultural significance. There are three dimensions for describing people’s associations with the languages they speak:
Simultaneous multilingualism (i.e. balanced bilingual) refers to learning the first and second language simultaneously. Both languages are learned in the home environment and the level of both languages is maximal depending on socioeconomic status and input. Successive multilingualism (i.e. functional bilingual) refers to learning the first language first and the second language after mastering the first one. The first language is learned in the home environment whereas the second language is learned at school or work. The level of the first language is maximal but the level of the second language varies. This multilingualism can be domain-specific (e.g. only reading; only speaking).
Lower order processes refer to the level of letter and word recognition. Higher-order processes refer to the comprehension of the content of text. Efficient lower-order processes allow to allocate optimal attention to the interpretation of meaning communicated in the text. Metacognitive skills in reading refer to the ability to use strategies to regulate the reading process.
When learning a language at home, exposure to the best language is essential. It appears as if the first language skill can predict second language learning early on in life. This could help with early diagnoses of reading and spelling problems of the second language. There are several theories as to how the first language influences learning the second:
In a structural model of languages, there are relations between skills in language one and language two. Lower
.....read moreSpecific learning disabilities are detrimental to one’s well-being. The repeated academic failure associated with this continues to haunt people for years after formal schooling.
A specific learning disability originally included a discrepancy-based definition. This included a discrepancy between IQ and achievement (e.g. high IQ, low reading achievement). However, the degree of discrepancy is arbitrary. This definition favours older children and children with a higher IQ. It is failure-based (e.g. waiting for children to show failure in academics).
The current definition is focused on identification with response to intervention (RTI). It includes achievement in key academic areas that is substantially below the age norm and in excess of sensory deficit (1), linguistic processes (2), attention (3) and memory (4). The prevalence rate is about 2% to 10%.
There are often social deficits in people with SLD but this may be because they get rejected and neglected by peers more often. People with SLD typically have low self-esteem and a poor self-esteem.
The DSM-5 definition of a specific learning disorder includes the following:
The DSM-5 uses a discrepancy definition but not an IQ-discrepancy definition. There are three specifiers for severity:
Positive psychology interventions (PPI) aim to enhance well-being by increasing positive affect, cognition and behaviour (e.g. developing hope; mastery of life). This includes teaching coping skills. This approach holds that dyslexics have unique strengths and there needs to be a focus on this. However, not all dyslexics have unique strengths and their problems need to be addressed. Positive behavioural interventions (PBI) are more common and focus on providing remedies for the problematic behaviours associated with a specific learning disorder. Changing one’s mindset can help in alleviating the negative aspects of a specific
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