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This is the Chapter 9 of the book Introduction to Kassin, S., Fein, S., Markus, H.R. (2021) Social Psychology, International Edition (11th edition). Which is content for the exam of the Theory component of Module 2 (Social Behaviour) of the University of Twente, in the Netherlands.
Ch.9: Attraction & close relationships
Need to belong:
- Social Anxiety Disorder: intense discomfort when social situations are observed
- Public-speaking Anxiety: stage of fright when public speaking
Affiliation:
- Need for affiliation: desire to establish and maintain rewarding relationships. When do we need affiliation?
- Stress --> increase need for affiliation, specially if others face same threat
- Cognitive clarity about threat danger
- Unity
- Feeling lonely
- Lack of power
- Stress --> increase need for affiliation, specially if others face same threat
Loneliness:
Deprivation feeling about existing social interactions. Types:
1. Intimate: when wanting significant other, but not having
2. Rational: when lack of occasional help from others
3. Collective: loneliness from social identity we derive from (e.g. group common interest and having and useful identity towards that interest, would make us feel less lonely)
Initial attraction:
Familiarity:
- The Proximity Effect: physical proximity predictor of attraction
- The Mere Exposure Effect: increase exposure --> increase positive evaluation
Physical attractiveness:
- Group Attractiveness Effect: increase physical attractiveness of members of group when they’re together
- Averaged Faces: prototypically face-like (with few distinctive features) --> face seen as more familiar, and it is easier to process
- Beauty importance:
- Beauty as rewarding --> presence of beautiful people in group --> increase average-looking beauty of group
- What-is-beautiful-is-good stereotype: physical attractiveness associated desirable personality characteristics
- Self-fulfilling Prophecy: expectations people have on someone, can “create” attractive people (e.g. children of beautiful movie stars)
First Encounters:
- Similarity of demographics, interests, values, attitudes, …
- Two-stage Model of Attraction Process: when contact with someone else is continued after --> 1. Both are not dissimilar/2. Both are high in similarity
- Matching Hypothesis: we attract others that are similar to us in terms of physical attractiveness
- Complementary Hypothesis: states that opposites attract --> this theory has been criticized
- Reciprocity: when there is mutual exchange of what is given and what is received
- Hard-to-get Effect: tendency to prefer others with selective social choices (when they are hard to get)
Male selection:
- Men:
- Seek to propagate widely
- Conspicuous consumption: purchase for the purpose of displaying their wealth
- Sexual Infidelity: issue of concern more than women
- Women:
- Seek to propagate wisely
- Emotional infidelity: issue of concern more than men
Close relationships:
- Intimate Relationships: emotional attachment --> involves fulfilling of psychological needs and interdependence
- Empty shell: when a relationship is characterised only with interdependence
- Stimulus-value-role Theory (SVR): explains formation of intimate relationships
- Stimulus Stage: attraction only from external attributes of other
- Value stage: attachment to other. Participants of relationship hold similar values and beliefs
- Role stage: Commitment to other. Assigned roles to participants of relationship (e.g. husband/wife)
Gains/losses:
- Social Exchange Theory: motivation to maximize benefits and minimize costs of a relationship
- Comparison level (CL): average of expected relation outcomes
- Comparison Level for Alternatives (CLalt): expectations of an alternative situation --> it has been seen that it decreases the commitment of the relationship
- Relational Building Blocks:
- Reward, costs, and CL of relationship --> influence CLalt, relationship satisfaction and investment --> ultimately influence commitment
- Equity Theory: satisfaction in terms of ratio of benefits and contributions are at similar level.
- Equilibrium Model of Relationship Maintenance: states that relationships use threat-mitigating tactics, to lessen effect of threat, in order to preserve relationship
Types relationships:
- Exchange Relationship: with strict reciprocity expectations
- Communal relationship: expect and desire for responsiveness needs
Love:
- Eros: Erotic love --> Mania: demanding and possessive love
- Ludus: uncommitted love --> Pragma: pragmatic love
- Storge: friendship love --> Agane: altruistic love
- Triangular Theory of Love:
- Intimacy: emotional component
- Passion: motivational component
- Commitment: cognitive component
- Elaine Hatfield:
- Passionate love: intense attraction, with fear of rejection
- Two-factor theory of Emotion:
- Physiological arousal
- Belief arousal is triggered by beloved person
- Excitation Transfer: Experience of combined arousal (Stimulus 1 + Stimulus 2) --> attribute arousal only to Stimulus 2
- Two-factor theory of Emotion:
- Companionate love: secure and trusting partnership
- Self-disclosure: by gradually revealing emotions and experiences and listening to their reciprocal sharing, people gain a greater understanding of each other and display trust.
- Social Penetration Theory: describes self-disclosure process, from broader exchanges (superficial areas of life) to deeper exchanges (sensitive areas of life)
- Self-disclosure: by gradually revealing emotions and experiences and listening to their reciprocal sharing, people gain a greater understanding of each other and display trust.
- Passionate love: intense attraction, with fear of rejection
Relationship issues:
- Erotic Plasticity: sex drive and sexual behaviour shaped by societal, cultural and situational factors
- Sexual orientation:
- Exotic Becomes Erotic Theory:
- Gender-conforming children: opposite sex seen as unfamiliar and exotic
- Gender-nonconforming children: same sex seen as unfamiliar and exotic
- Exotic Becomes Erotic Theory:
- Communication conflict:
- Negative Affect Reciprocity: exchange expressions of negative feelings
- Demand/withdraw Interaction Pattern: demand/withdraw pattern seen within relationship interactions
- Relationship-Enhancing attribution (REA): when people attribute undesired behaviour to situational factors and desired behaviour as inherent in partner
- Distress-maintaining Attributions: opposite of REA
Bundle of Summaries of Chapters for the Theory component of Module 2
Summary of Chapter 13 of the How Children Develop Book (Robert Siegler, 1st Edition)
This is the Chapter 13 of the book How Children Develop (Robert Siegler, 1st Edition). Which is content for the exam of the Theory component of Module 2 (Social Behaviour) of the University of Twente, in the Netherlands.
Ch. 13: Peers & Child Development
Importance of playing:
- Play: voluntary activity, with the motivation of own pleasure. It contributes to the social, emotional, cognitive and physical development
Types of play:
Non-social types of play:
- Unoccupied play: looking objects from environment, the attention is not held on anything specifically
- Onlooker play: watching other kids playing
- Solitary play: playing by yourself, not paying attention to others
Social types of play:
- Parallel play: when kids play next to each other, but not together
- Associative play: kids playing together, doing same activity
- Co-operative play: playing together, in an organised way, and each participant of the play has an assigned role
Development friendship:
- Friend: someone with whom you have intimate, positive and mutual relationship
Choosing friends:
- When pleasant to deal with other, and this other behaves pro-socially towards others
- When equality of interest
- When proximity, especially in children)
- When gender or ethnicity similar
Changing friendship:
- Clique: unstable peer group. Their functions are to socialize, share interests and belong to a group
- Crowd: group with same stereotypical reputation (e.g. popular people)
Technology & Friendship:
- Rich-get-richer Hypothesis: individuals with good social skills, benefit even more from internet interactions with others
- Social-compensation hypothesis: socially anxious individuals benefit greatly form internet interactions with others
Chatting:
- Anonymity, very beneficial for shy kids
- Less emphasis on physical appearance
- Increased easiness when finding similar peers
Psychological Functioning/Behaviour & Friendship:
- Friendship provides:
- Validation of own thoughts, feelings and values
- Improves social and cognitive skills
- Openness stimulates cognitive skills and improve creative performance
- Deviancy training: reinforcement by peers of antisocial behaviour
- Authoritarian parenting style --> children are more at risk of developing risk-seeking behaviour, since they are more vulnerable to peer pressure
Social Networks:
- Gang: loosely organized group of adolescence/young adults, and often engage with illegal activities
Bullying and Victimization:
- Physical bullying: when hurt physically, or when threaten to be hurt
- Verbal bullying: insulting, teasing, harassing, intimidating
- Social bullying: excluding someone, spreading gossip about someone
- Cyberbullying: use of technology to hurt or harass someone
Gender & friendships:
- Girls, increased attachment, more likely to get back for advice, increased co-rumination (thinking deeply about something) --> reinforce anxiety and depression
Status Child:
- Sociometric status: measurement extent children are
Summary of Chapter 12 of the How Children Develop Book (Robert Siegler, 1st Edition)
This is the Chapter 12 of the book How Children Develop (Robert Siegler, 1st Edition). Which is content for the exam of the Theory component of Module 2 (Social Behaviour) of the University of Twente, in the Netherlands.
Ch. 12: Influence of family on development children
Family structures:
Number of relationships and members of households
- Increase number of single parents --> tendency to be found below the poverty line
- Older parents --> increased financial resources
- Grandparents present household --> negative effects on development
- Decreased family size --> increase birth control, women’s work ambitions, and divorce
- Teenager pregnancies --> weak parenting skills -->
- Disorganized attachment style
- Weak impulse control
- Delay cognitive development
- Increased chance of delinquent behaviour and sexual behaviour
Parents same sex:
Children don’t differ in terms of adaptation, personality, relationships with peers and academic performance
- Adaptation influenced by:
- Family dynamics
- Parent-child relationship
- Bond parents
- Parents support
- Regulated discipline
- Degree parent stress
Divorce:
- Changes: increased financial problems, new family structure, ….
- Indirect effect on:
- Decreased positive upbringing, decreased fine family interaction
- Positive when high levels of conflict prior to divorce
- Long/short term problems --> depression, decreased self-esteem, …
- Predictors of suffering:
- Stress and parental conflict
- Age of the child at time of divorce
- Degree contact with unjustified parent (the one to “blame” for the divorce)
Step-fathers:
- Remarriage: decreased contact with real father --> difficulties of adaption to “new” family
- Stepfather’s tendency to feel less attached to their stepchildren
- Increased conflicts in stepfamilies
- Stepmothers increased difficulty with stepchildren than stepfathers
- Increased success stepfamily when:
- Real parent and stepparent have a supportive relationship
Family Dynamics:
The way the family interacts with each other through different relationships --> interdependence and mutual influence
- Child-rearing function: parenting function that ensures survival of the child
Parenting style:
- Socialization: process in which individuals learn values, norms, skills, knowledge, behaviours that are seen as appropriate to your current and future role in culture
- Important aspects of upbringing:
- Discipline: set of strategies and behaviours that children are thought so they can behave appropriately
- Internalization: process where the child learns and accepts the desired behaviour
- Other-oriented induction: when the child thinks about the consequences of the behaviour for others
- Punishment: negative stimulus that follows undesired behaviour --> adds psychological pressure, which reduces the effectiveness of internalization
- Parenting style: behaviours and attitudes in parenting which determine emotional climate for parent-child interaction (degree parental warmth, support and acceptance/ degree
- Discipline: set of strategies and behaviours that children are thought so they can behave appropriately
Summary of Chapter 14 of the How Children Develop Book (Robert Siegler, 1st Edition)
This is the Chapter 14 of the book How Children Develop (Robert Siegler, 1st Edition). Which is content for the exam of the Theory component of Module 2 (Social Behaviour) of the University of Twente, in the Netherlands.
Ch.14: Moral Development
Moral Judgment:
Morality in certain actions is no obvious, hence reasoning is crucial
Piaget’s Theory of Moral Judgment:
- Heteronomous Morality: [age < 7]. Right and wrong as basis to determine consequences. Rules are perceived as real and unchangeable
- Transitional Period: [7-10 years old]. Increased active role in reasoning of right or wrong. Peer interaction is very influential
- Autonomous Morality: [11-12 years old]. Consider motives and intentions when assessing behaviour. No longer blindly accepting rules
Kohlberg’s Theory:
- Theory of Moral Judgment (Kohlberg): describes stages that are discontinuous and hierarchical
- Level 1: Preconventional level: self-centred, focusing on getting rewarded and avoiding punishment
- Phase 1: punishment and obedience orientation
- Phase 2: Instrumental and exchange orientation
- Level 2: Conventional Level: influenced by social relationships. Wish to comply with social rights and laws
- Phase 3: Mutual interpersonal expectations and conform with them
- Phase 4: Social system and perceived idea of that system
- Level 3: Post-conventional/Principled Level: holding ideals and moral principles
- Phase 5: Social contracts and individual rights orientation
- Phase 6: Universal ethical principles
- Level 1: Preconventional level: self-centred, focusing on getting rewarded and avoiding punishment
Social Domain Theory f Moral Development:
- Moral Domain: social knowledge related to wrong, fair and justice
- Socio-conventional Domain: social knowledge related to regulations that ensure social coordination, and organization in society (e.g. dress code,…)
- Personal Domain: social knowledge related to actions preferences of individual as central drive.
Conscience:
Internal control mechanism that increases ability to conform to accepted behavioue
- Limits: antisocial or destructive behaviour
- Promotes: compliance with rules and prosocial behaviour (e.g. guilt)
- Influenced by temperament and culture
Summary of Chapter 9 of the Social Psychology Book (Kassin, Fein, Markus, 11th Edition)
This is the Chapter 9 of the book Introduction to Kassin, S., Fein, S., Markus, H.R. (2021) Social Psychology, International Edition (11th edition). Which is content for the exam of the Theory component of Module 2 (Social Behaviour) of the University of Twente, in the Netherlands.
Ch.9: Attraction & close relationships
Need to belong:
- Social Anxiety Disorder: intense discomfort when social situations are observed
- Public-speaking Anxiety: stage of fright when public speaking
Affiliation:
- Need for affiliation: desire to establish and maintain rewarding relationships. When do we need affiliation?
- Stress --> increase need for affiliation, specially if others face same threat
- Cognitive clarity about threat danger
- Unity
- Feeling lonely
- Lack of power
- Stress --> increase need for affiliation, specially if others face same threat
Loneliness:
Deprivation feeling about existing social interactions. Types:
1. Intimate: when wanting significant other, but not having
2. Rational: when lack of occasional help from others
3. Collective: loneliness from social identity we derive from (e.g. group common interest and having and useful identity towards that interest, would make us feel less lonely)
Initial attraction:
Familiarity:
- The Proximity Effect: physical proximity predictor of attraction
- The Mere Exposure Effect: increase exposure --> increase positive evaluation
Physical attractiveness:
- Group Attractiveness Effect: increase physical attractiveness of members of group when they’re together
- Averaged Faces: prototypically face-like (with few distinctive features) --> face seen as more familiar, and it is easier to process
- Beauty importance:
- Beauty as rewarding --> presence of beautiful people in group --> increase average-looking beauty of group
- What-is-beautiful-is-good stereotype: physical attractiveness associated desirable personality characteristics
- Self-fulfilling Prophecy: expectations people have on someone, can “create” attractive people (e.g. children of beautiful movie stars)
First Encounters:
- Similarity of demographics, interests, values, attitudes, …
- Two-stage Model of Attraction Process: when contact with someone else is continued after --> 1. Both are not dissimilar/2. Both are high in similarity
- Matching Hypothesis: we attract others that are similar to us in terms of physical attractiveness
- Complementary Hypothesis: states that opposites attract --> this theory has been criticized
- Reciprocity: when there is mutual exchange of what is given and what is received
- Hard-to-get Effect: tendency to prefer others with selective social choices (when they are hard to get)
Male selection:
- Men:
- Seek to propagate widely
- Conspicuous consumption: purchase for the purpose of displaying their wealth
- Sexual Infidelity: issue of concern more than women
- Women:
- Seek to propagate wisely
- Emotional infidelity: issue of concern more than men
Close relationships:
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