Psychology: the wider picture, where did it all start? - Chapter 1

Animism:

Term introduced by Burnett Tylor. People used to be believe that objects and nature were possessed by spirits with human characteristics that caused events. In this way it was possible to explain how the world was structured.

Dark Ages:

A period in history, conceived in the time of the Renaissance. With this term they referred to a time when people did not think independently and scientifically.

Fertile Crescent:

This is a region in the Middle East that looks like a half-moon. Archaeological research has shown that around 3000 BC there already was a high-quality civilization.

Logograph:

A sign / symbol representing a spoken word that no longer displays a physical resemblance to the meaning of the word.

Matthew effect:

The term first used by Robert K. Merton, who described in 1968 how famous scientists often come across as more credible than relatively unknown scientists, even when the quality of their work is lower or the same. this means that more credits are generally given to who are already known.

Phonogram:

A symbol / sign that represents a sound, a character or syllable. This is the basis for writing systems.

Philosophy:

Critical reflection on the universe and human actions, philosophy originated in ancient Greece.

Pictogram:

A symbol that transmits information. The symbol consists of an image that looks like the person, animal or object that it represents.

Place coding system:

System in which the meaning of a character depends not only on the shape, but also on the position in a string of characters (e.g. Arabic numbers).

Preliterate civilization:

A civilization that existed before writing was invented.

Protestant Reformation:

A movement that stood up against Roman Catholicism. This was a very important event for the development of science because it emphasized good education, hard work, critical thinking and worldly success.

Renaissance:

Cultural movement from the 14^th to the 17^th century that was based on the rediscovery and imitation of the classical Greeks and Roman civilization.

Scholastic method:

Study method in which students learn texts without having to think about it further so that they can literally repeat them later so that they regard these texts as unchangeable truths.

Syllogism:

In logic this is an argument / reasoning that consists of three propositions: a major premise, a minor premise and a conclusion. The purpose of logic is to determine which syllogism leads to a good conclusion and which does not.

Zeitgeist:

This is a word used in the history of science to indicate that a certain period in history was ready to invent certain things. This invention did not stem from one genius, but from a much broader development that ultimately led to the invention.

What was the scientific revolution in the 17th century about? - Chapter 2

Age of Enlightenment:

Name for Western philosophy and culture of the 18th century. In these western societies it was argued that autonomous (independent) thinking and observation were the primary sources for knowledge. This instead of a society where you as a citizen subject yourself to higher authorities where you blindly accepted everything they said.

Deductive reasoning:

Go from general to more specific statements. New conclusions can be drawn if the rules of logic are followed properly.

Dualism:

Dualism makes a distinction between body and mind, seen as soul or consciousness. The soul or consciousness (the human mind) is immaterial and completely independent of the body. This idea is central to many religions and Descartes' philosophy.

Experimental history:

Method introduced by Bacon in which the natural philosopher tries to discover the truth of natural phenomena by manipulating nature and then analyzing the consequences of this manipulation.

Geocentric universe:

Astronomical model in which people thought that the earth was in the middle of the universe and that the rest (planets, sun, moon) revolves around the earth. This reasoning was dominant until the 17th century.

Heliocentric model:

Astronomical model where the sun is in the middle and the rest revolves around the sun.

Humanities:

Studies that continued with the traditional investigation of the ancient classics, and were increasingly supplemented by teachings of contemporary literature and art.

Inductive reasoning:

With deduction an attempt is made to go from general to more specific statements. This is exactly the opposite for induction. In this case, various individual empirical observations attempt to derive general laws (well-known example is that of the white and black swans).

Industrial revolution:

Name for the socio-economic and cultural changes in the 19th century that were caused by the invention of machines. Workers were replaced by machines (because they were cheaper, caused faster production). Mass production emerged and more and more people moved from the countryside to the city to find work here.

Mechanistic view:

A worldview in which all natural phenomena are represented as complex machines. Everything is subject to mechanistic laws. This rejects the notion that things have a purpose and intentions (as stated by animism). This is also part of Descartes' philosophy.

Positivism:

Positivists argued that authentic knowledge can only be obtained through a scientific method. They saw religious and philosophical explanations as inferior.

Principia Mathematica:

Book from Newton in 1687 in which he presents his laws of nature. Is seen as the book that has put science back on the map.

Romantic movement:

Movement that dates from the late 18th century and continued into the early 19th century. This movement was a reaction to the mechanistic worldview and the emphasis on the views of the Enlightenment. Romanticism saw the world as a constantly changing organism.

Scientific revolution:

This is the name for a number of discoveries that all took place in the 17th century. Scientists like Galilei, Descartes, and Newton. All of their findings have enriched the status of science in society.

Which psychological science theories emerged in the 18th and 19th centuries? - Chapter 3

Empiricism:

According to this vision, knowledge is gained through observation experiences, with a strong emphasis on induction. Empirists assume that the human mind is a tabula rasa that as you get older, is filled in further and further. All markings on this "blank sheet" are different associations that later become a whole.

Epistemology:

A branch within philosophy that deals with the nature of knowledge.

Idealism:

Philosophical vision that states that human knowledge is a construction of the mind. This does not necessarily have to correspond with the outside world. The truth of knowledge depends on the connection with the rest of the knowledge within a social group.

Individualization:

A characteristic of today's Western society is that people derive their self-image and self-confidence from their own qualities and achievements instead of the position of their family in society. This is, in short, the process of individualization. It is a trend in society where people strive for looser social relationships and focus largely on themselves. People take less account of the group(s) they belong to.

Introspection:

Introspection or self-reflection is a research method within psychology in which a person tries to recognize his or her own conscious and unconscious processes. These processes take place in our own psyche. This type of research method is usually conducted under controlled conditions.

Mental chronometry:

Term from experimental psychology where reaction time is used to measure how much time is needed for various mental tasks.

Natural selection:

Process in Darwin's evolution theory. This process is the cause of evolution. selection: only  organisms that fit within  the environment and can  produce viable offspring  survive.

Physiognomy:

The art of reading a person's personality from his appearance, this mainly concerns the shape of the face and head.

Psychophysics:

Part of psychological research that deals with the relationship between physical stimuli and the corresponding sensation.

Rationalism:

Vision based on the assumption that knowledge is obtained through reasoning. Usually this is through deductive reasoning based on innate knowledge.

Realism:

Philosophical vision that states that with human knowledge one tries to unravel how the actual outside world works and looks. the truth of  knowledge is determined  by the correspondence of  the knowledge with the  real world

Survival of the fittest:

A term introduced by Herbert Spencer to describe the outcome of natural selection. Only the organisms that can adapt well will ensure good offspring and thus guarantee the continuation of their breed.

The origin of species:

Book written by Charles Darwin (1859) in which he describes his evolution theory.

How has psychology as a science evolved in recent centuries? - Chapter 4

Asylum:

Name given to institutions for insane individuals. The first was established in the 16th century. First it was like a prison, later it became more of a hospital for chronic patients.

Case study:

This is an intensive study of one individual patient within the context of his or her own world and relationships, through which the doctor/therapist learns to better understand the patient and can also help them better.

Functionalism:

This is a name for early American psychological research that mainly investigated the practical functions of the human mind. These researchers were inspired by Darwin’s theory of evolution.

Gestalt psychology:

Group of psychologists who stated that the human mind cannot be understood by dividing experiences into their constitutive elements. According to them, perception is more than a sensation of stimuli, it includes organization.

Historical method:

One of the three research methods introduced by Wundt. This is the study of mental differences that are demonstrated on the basis of cultural differences. According to Wundt, this method is very useful if you are researching the higher functions of the human mind.

Neurologist:

Term used at the end of the 19th century by doctors interested in the treatment of milder forms of psychological problems. The term was later used to refer to specialists in the field of the nervous system. This happened when the first neurologists merged with the psychiatrists.

Psychoanalysis:

The name of Freud's theory and therapy.

Psychological treatment;

Treatment for psychological problems where a patient is helped by a therapist in various conversations. This form of treatment was invented by Freud and had to be an alternative to the existing medical and educational treatments.

Spiritualism:

The belief that the spirits of  the dead can be contacted  by mediums. Very popular towards the end of the 19th century and early 20th century in English-speaking countries.

Structuralism:

Name given by Titchener for his psychological approach. With this approach he wanted to try to discover the structure of the human mind through introspection.

Würzburg school:

Group of psychologists at the University of Würzburg who used introspection as a research method. Through the use of introspection, however, they came to conclusions other than Wundt and Titchener. In particular, they claimed that many thought processes were not accessible through introspection (imageless thoughts).

What is the history of the scientific reputation of psychology? - Chapter 5

Algorithm:

List of instructions that convert a particular input into the desired output through a fully defined sequence of steps in between.

Anthropomorphic interpretation:

Interpreting the behavior of non-human beings by attributing human motives and human-like intelligence to them.

Behaviorism:

Movement within psychology in which the observable behavior of human functioning is most important. Denies the relevance of information processing going on in the mind. Particularly popular in the United States in the first half of the twentieth century.

Boxes-and-arrows diagram:

Flowchart in which the 'boxes' represent temporary storage places for information and the arrows represent the cognitive processes that transform the information. The input and output in the performance of a particular task is observable. Such diagrams were first used around 1958 in England, used by D. Broadbent, among others. This diagram is used by cognitive psychologists to record in detail the information processing process associated with a task.

Classical conditioning:

Learning form discovered by Pavlov, in which an association is made between two stimuli, whereby a neutral stimuli is linked to a knee-jerk reaction.

Cognitive Psychology:

Movement in psychology that argues that observable behavior is the result of processing information in mind. This movement emerged around the 1950s and is currently the dominant form of psychology.

Comparative Psychology:

Study of animal behavior, usually with the aim of shedding light on human functioning in the context of the theory of evolution.

Computational model:

Computer program in which human information processing (which is believed to be involved in the performance of a particular task) is stimulated. This program ensures that researchers can be much more accurate about what is going on during information processing than with boxes-and-arrows diagrams.

Eugenics:

Social philosophy that claims that the fate of a nation can be improved if the citizens selectively produce offspring. This social philosophy was shaped by Galton who saw it as a logical continuation of evolutionary theory.

Homunculus:

Word meaning "little man" which was used to refer to hard-to-explain, goal-oriented behavior that comes about without the use of an ultimate intelligent human-like control center.

Information feedback:

Mechanism in which the current performance level is compared with the desired end state and the discrepancy is used to get the performance closer to the desired end state. Important for psychology because it better explains how goal-directed behavior works, which was previously explained using homunculus.

Information processing:

Coding mental representations. This coding is done by means of algorithms and then integrating them with existing knowledge. This is at the heart of cognitive psychology.

Instrumental conditioning:

Name introduced by Thorndike to refer to learning based on the 'law of effect'; Skinner calls this operant conditioning.

Law of effect:

Behavioral law introduced by Thorndike. This law means that the chance is increased that behavior will be repeated if it is followed by positive consequences.

Mental representation:

Information pattern of the human mind that represents the knowledge obtained through observation or the application of an algorithm. This knowledge is a separate part of the brain and can in principle be copied to another brain (or in more extreme cases, to a Turing machine).

Operational definition:

This definition indicates how an (often abstract) variable is measured. The variable can then be defined and measured quantitatively by the operational definition (you turn an abstract concept such as intelligence into an operational definition and then you translate it into concrete things such as tests, in this case the IQ test, so that it becomes measurable .

Philosophy of science:

Branch of philosophy that studies the foundations of scientific research, in order to determine the position of scientific research in relation to other forms of knowledge acquisition.

Phrenology:

The idea that mental functions are located in the brain and that the capacity of a particular function corresponds to the size of that part of the brain. Gave rise to personality assessments generated by analyzing bumps on the skull. Initiated by van Gall and Spurzheim in the early nineteenth century.

Purposive behaviorism:

Version of behaviorism advocated by Tolman, who saw behavior as goal-related. Tolman agreed with the idea of ​​other behaviorists that psychology should be based on observable behavior.

Radical Behaviourism:

A version of behaviorism advocated by Skinner that denies the relevance of information processing in the mind and argues that all human behavior can be understood through SR associations.

Top-down process:

Process in which information that is in a higher processing stage goes back to previous processing stages and this influences the information processing at these stages. This turned out to be a useful (and even essential) part of many computational models.

Turing test:

Test described by Alan Turing. This test involves human interaction with a machine and another human. In some cases the interaction with the machine cannot be distinguished from the interaction with a human. Machines (such as robots) that pass the Turing test are seen as the target of artificial intelligence.

Turing machine:

Basic (hypothetical) machine that works on the basis of Boolean logic and is able to stimulate the processes of more complex machines that operate according to these principles.

Verification:

Principle that was at the heart of scientific method until the 1950s. A proposition / research proposal was only meaningful (in the sense of scientific) if the truth could be empirically verified

What is the history of brain research within psychology? - Chapter 6

Animal spirits:

The Greek doctor Galen (130-200 AD) thought that ghosts traveled through the nerves between the ventricles in the brain and the body.

Brain equipotentiality:

Theory that states that for any task, all parts of the brain are equally important. At first it was thought that this applied to the entire brain, but since the nineteenth century this area has been limited to cerebral hemispheres.

Cognitive neuropsychiatry:

Subfield that tries to  understand consequences  of mental disorders in  terms of breakdowns in  the cognitive models of  normal psychological  functioning

Cognitive neuropsychology:

Branch of neuropsychology that focuses on learning to understand and treat the behavioral consequences of brain injury within information processing models as set up by cognitive psychologists.

Cognitive neuroscience:

The scientific study of biological mechanisms that underlie cognition. Largely based on brain imaging techniques, TMS, and the measurement of electrical activity.

Edwin Smith papyrus:

Paper from ancient Egypt that contains brief descriptions of the symptoms and treatment of various forms of brain injury. Named after Edwin Smith who bought the papyrus in Egypt and analyzed the papyrus piece.

EEG (Electroencephalogram):

An EEG is the result of a measurement of the electrical brain activity by attaching sensors to the scalp. Often used in hospitals for the detection of epilepsy.

Event Related Potential (ERP):

ERP is a signal obtained by averaging EEG signals on certain stimuli. A number of EEGs are taken for an ERP signal.

fMRI:

Brain imaging technique based on the measurement of blood with oxygen versus blood without oxygen. It is currently the most popular imaging technique due to its high spatial resolution (ensures good localization). It has fairly low temporal resolution (it cannot figure out what happens at a speed of hundreds of registrations per second).

Localization theory:

Theory that states that brain processes are localized, meaning that only a part of the brain underlies a certain mental function rather than the brain as a whole providing certain mental functions.

Magneto encephalography (MEG):

Measurement of the electrical brain activity by means of measurement of the magnetic field around the head.

Neuropsychology:

Branch of psychological research that looks at the relationship between brain and behavior. Research traditionally focused on learning to understand the consequences of brain injury and how to locate the affected tissue. This research assesses the behavioral and psychological consequences of the injury and providing rehabilitation programs.

Neuron:

This is a brain cell, basic unit of the nervous system. A neuron contains a cell body, dendrites and an axon.

Neurotransmitter:

Chemical substance used to communicate between neurons. It is released from the synapse when a signal arrives through the axon. This can be influenced by medicines.

Non-invasive techniques:

Methods within neurological science that make it possible to study the functioning of the brain without having to operate.

Positron emission tomography (PET):

Brain imaging technique that is based on measuring a radioactive tracer that is injected into the bloodstream and then collects itself in certain places (e.g. in the case of a tumor).

Reflex arc:

Concept introduced in the nineteenth century that describes the underlying processes of a reflex. A signal is picked up  by sensory receptors, transmitted to the spinal cord through an afferent nerve, transferred to interneurons, which activate motor neurons that send a motor command over an efferent nerve to initiate the withdrawal movement.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS):

Stimulation of a brain area by means of a coil that is placed on the head can cause disruption in a small part of the brain for a short time.

Ventricles:

Openings at the center of the brain, which for a long time were thought to contain the observations, the memory and the thoughts, this was the place of the "animal spirits".

What are the historical views within psychology of the "mind-brain dilemma"? - Chapter 7

Access consciousness:

Block (1995) makes a distinction between two types of consciousness: access consciousness and phenomenological consciousness. Information that you can reach as a person (you are aware of the fact that you are in possession of this knowledge) and that you can report to a doctor is information that contains access consciousness. This information is used for reasoning and can be used intentionally.

Associative learning:

Learning simple associations (correlations) between all types of events.

Chinese cream:

Searle's thought experiment to illustrate the difference between information processing in people and information processing in computers.

Consciousness:

Consciousness refers to personal, first-person experiences that an individual experiences in his or her life. It is about all mental states that a person can be aware of. This is the part of the human mind that can be examined with introspection.

Dualism:

Vision on the relationship between body and mind, according to which the mind is immaterial and completely independent of the body. Dualism is central to religions and also to Descartes' philosophy.

Embodied cognition:

The belief that the nature of the human mind is largely determined by the cooperation between the human body and the environment.

Folk psychology:

Collection of beliefs lay people have about psychological functioning. There are no efforts made to verify them empirically.

Free will:

Situation in which individuals can determine their way of acting by choosing from a number of alternatives, choice is the result of a rational assessment.

Functionalism:

Functionalism is a statement about the relationship between the mind and the brain. The mind is considered as a separate layer of information that is executed on a Turing machine. Functionalism predicts that the mind can be copied on another Turing machine.

Global workspace model:

Model in which the role of consciousness is explained on the basis of an analogy. The analogy is that human consciousness is compared to a theater. According to this model, the brain is like a theater where a lot has to be done behind the scenes for the performance to take place on stage.

Hard problem:

Name given by Chalmers to refer to the fact that it is very difficult to explain in which respects consciousness is more than how consciousness is explained on the basis of materialism and functionalism.

Heuristic-based thinkers:

These are people who think based on heuristics. Heuristics are informal, intuitive and speculative solution strategies that people develop to address certain problems. You can also call a heuristics a rule of thumb. It takes less effort and time to prepare a heuristics than a scientific rule such as an algorithm. Although it is faster and requires less effort, it is less accurate.

Identity problem:

The difficulty the materialistic theory of the mind–brain relationship has to explain how two events can be experienced as the same despite the fact that their realization in the brain differs.

Masked priming:

Experimental technology that you use to investigate unconscious information processing. Priming is that one recognizes a certain stimulus more quickly, or responds to a certain stimulus if one has already seen it before.

Materialism:

Materialism is a certain view/vision of the relationship between the mind and the brain. Materialists see the mind as the brain in operation.

Meme:

The term meme is used for the first time in a broader, philosophical context by Dawkins in 1976. A meme is an information unit that reproduces itself in accordance with the principles of evolutionary theory (variation, selection and replication).

Mind:

Accumulation of capabilities that people (and animals) must perceive, feel, think, remember and want.

Mind-brain problem:

Matter about how the mind is related to the brain, three points of view: dualism, materialism and functionalism.

Phenomenological consciousness:

The term phenomenological consciousness refers to the fact that human experiences contain subjective elements that cannot be defined. People have the idea that their mind, consciousness is deeper than what they have in knowledge. This deeper consciousness and the information in it cannot be accessed by people. Experiences have a meaning that cannot be formally reported.

Phlogiston:

A substance that was  believed to make materials  flammable before the  chemical processes  of combustion were  understood

Qualia:

Qualitative properties of conscious thoughts that give the thoughts a rich and lively meaning (taste and smell for example).

Self:

The feeling that you are an individual with your own experiences, feelings and beliefs, who collaborate with your environment in a coherent and targeted manner.

Symbol grounding problem:

The finding that representations used in computations require a reference to some external reality in  order to get meaning.

Thought experiment:

Hypothetical scenario that helps in understanding a philosophical argument.

Vital force:

Animistic substance  thought to be present in  living matter before the  chemical and biological  differences between living  and non-living matter  were understood

Zombie thought experiment:

Thought experiment developed by Chalmers. This thought experiment shows that the human mind is more than a Turing machine because thoughts contain qualitative elements, or qualia.

How does psychological science affect our daily lives? - Chapter 8

Achievement test:

A standardized test that tests the knowledge of a specific subject or different subjects in individuals.

Antipsychiatry Movement:

An action group from the 1960s of the last century that questioned the treatment methods of psychiatrists in institutions.

Applied psychology:

This is when psychological knowledge and research methods are applied to solve practical problems.

Clinical psychology:

A branch of psychology in which psychological knowledge is applied to treat mental disorders.

Diagnostic tests:

Tests that determine the condition of a certain person (for example an illness or mental disorder).

Efficacy of therapies:

Research is being conducted into the effect of therapies so that it can be concluded whether it really helps or not.

Face validity:

Estimating the validity  of a test by estimating  to what extent the items  of the test agree with  one’s own beliefs; is not  evidence-based.

Human relations movement:

Theory of how work should be organized. Stressed the humanity of the employees and the importance of social relations.

Human resource Management:

Theory about how work should be organized. This theory emphasizes the importance of self-actualization and refers to the fact that employees perform better if they are given autonomy and responsibility.

Implicit personality theory:

This theory describes the specific patterns and prejudices that an individual uses to form a first impression. This is based on a limited amount of information about an unknown person.

Industrial psychology:

First theory about how work should be organized. It is strongly influenced  by Taylor’s scientific  management: employees were the hands of the company that would accept any work if  remunerated enough.

IQ test:

A test that can measure the intelligence level of an individual. Focuses on the learning potential.

Personality test:

A fairly stable way to expose characteristic behaviors of an individual through a test. These behavioral patterns characterize the individual and the way in which they respond in certain situations.

Personality trait:

Is a behavioral characteristic that belongs to a certain individual and can be observed externally. Personality traits are the behavioral traits of an individual. A personality trait is often bipolar, two extreme sides (introvert vs extrovert).

Pseudohistory of science:

A text that looks like a history of science, but that contains systematic errors because of a desire to present the research as more impressive and important than it was.

Psychoactive drugs:

These are medicines that are prescribed to people who suffer from mental disorders.

Qualifying test:

Test to ensure that the best person is chosen for the job/task.

Shell shock:

Anxiety attack that soldiers can experience on the battlefield. The soldier who experiences this can then no longer adequately respond/function. Was one of the first topics to deal with applied psychology.

Social desirability:

The bias people have to present themselves in a manner they think will be viewed best by others.

Social management:

Management and control of deviant individuals and individuals who need help through official social services.

Standardized psychological test:

These are tests that have been tested by psychologists for reliability and validity. After this you know exactly what the test measures, how it measures it and these are taken in the same way.

Structured interview:

An interview method where all people being interviewed receive the same questions.

Validity:

This is to what extent the test actually measures what the test claims to measure.

Welfare state:

Socio-political system in which individuals insure themselves for potential setbacks. The individuals all pay health insurance and taxes so that the government can provide social benefits.

What is science and how did the scientific method arise? - Chapter 9

Ad hoc modifications:

These are modifications (changes) to a theory that, according to Popper, only make the theory less falsifiable. These modifications let a scientific theory decrease in value.

Confirmation bias:

This is the natural tendency people have to search for evidence that confirms their opinion. It goes against falsificationism.

Correspondence theory of truth:

Theory that states that a statement is correct if it matches reality. It assumes that there is a physical reality that controls people's daily lives and it is that reality that people want to learn to understand.

Degenerative research program:

Idea/concept introduced by Lakatos to indicate that a paradigm does not allow scientists to develop new predictions/hypotheses because they do not fit within the current paradigm. This then requires many ad-hoc modifications to justify empirical findings.

Demarcation:

Is a definition of a certain concept. In the philosophy of science, demarcation is used to make generally applicable rules about science. A demarcation criterion is a criterion for separating scientific knowledge from pseudo-scientific knowledge.

Falsificationism:

Falsificationism is a scientific theory in which falsification is central. A claim is only scientific when it can be falsified empirically.

Hypothetico-deductive method:

Model developed by Popper to understand the scientific method. The model is based on observation, induction and "educated guesswork." A theory about a certain phenomenon is being developed, the correctness of this theory is evaluated by formulating a testable prediction (hypothesis). This hypothesis is being developed on the basis of deductive reasoning. The hypothesis is then subjected to a falsification test. This test provides scientists with new observable data that is needed for further theorization.

Idealism:

Philosophical view that states that human knowledge is a construction devised by the human mind. This knowledge does not have to correspond with the actual reality/world. The truth of knowledge depends on the connection with the rest of the knowledge within a social group.

Logical positivism:

Philosophical movement from the first half of the 20th century that claimed that philosophy should stop thinking about metaphysics and instead should focus on the essence of the scientific method. The basic principle was the verification principle.

Paradigm:

Concept introduced by Kuhn. He refers with paradigm to the fact that all scientists share a set of general ideas with each other, what a scientific discipline is about and how scientific issues should be investigated.

Philosophy of science:

Philosophy of science is a branch of philosophy that investigates the foundations of science in order to get a better picture of how science relates to other forms of information gathering.

Postmodernist:

According to the philosophy of science, these are people who question the special status of science and see scientific explanations as subjective stories told by a specific group of scientists.

Pragmatism:

View within philosophy of the end of the 19th century that originates in the US. Pragmatism states that human knowledge is information about how to deal with the world. Pragmatism tries to connect practice with theory. According to pragmatism, the truth of knowledge depends on the success of a theory if it is released in the real world and you can see how the theory holds up and whether it works in the real world.

Progressive research program:

Idea introduced by Lakatos to indicate that at some point a paradigm can be open to new, hitherto unexpected predictions and hypotheses that can also be tested empirically.

Realism:

Philosophical view that states that human knowledge tries to reveal real things of the world. The truth of knowledge is determined by the extent to which this knowledge corresponds to the real world.

Skepticism:

Philosophical conception that, like correspondence theory, agrees that there is a physical reality but does not think that people are capable of knowing this reliably. The founders of this view are Pyrrho van Ellis.

Science Wars:

In philosophy, this is the name for the debate between post-modernists and scientists.

Social construction:

Concept used by postmodernists to indicate that scientific knowledge is not objective knowledge that reflects the functioning of external reality. Scientific knowledge is a subjective story told by a subjective scientist who does not escape his own culture and language.

Verificationism:

The view that a proposition is only meaningful if its truth content can be verified through empirical methods. For science, this means that a statement is scientific only if it can be verified by objective value-free observation.

Is psychology a science? - Chapter 10

Critical psychology:

A movement in psychology that criticizes regular psychology for not wanting to see that knowledge does not refer to an external reality (idealism), that scientific knowledge is not cumulative but consists of various social constructs and that psychological theories and claims have a major impact on the world where people live.

Feminist psychology:

Movement in psychology that focuses on understanding women. Feminist psychology is particularly concerned with the way women are treated in mainstream psychology.

Hermeneutics:

Psychology approach that states that it is the psychologist's job to interpret and understand individuals based on their personal and socio-cultural history (understanding rather than controlling).

Humanistic psychology:

Psychological movement promoted by Rogers and Maslow as a counter-reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Emphasizes that people are: human, inherently positive, endowed with free will and living within a socio-cultural context.

Methodolatry or methodologism:

This is the tendency of scientists to glorify methodology. The focus on methodology is seen as the only requirement for scientific research at the expense of theory building. Instead of looking for a theoretical framework that connects everything, the founders of psychology assumed that as long as they followed the rules of scientific methodology they would contribute to the progress of psychology as a discipline.

Postcolonial psychology:

A movement in psychology that deals with issues such as racism and the way in which the dominant groups in a culture treat other groups.

Pseudoscience:

Branch of science that pretends to be scientific, but violates the scientific method on all essential aspects.

Unconscious plagiarism:

Term used by Bornstein to indicate how the scientific and the hermeneutic approach in psychology have influenced each other without both approaches being aware of it.

What is the contribution of qualitative and quantitative research models within psychology? - Chapter 11

Bracketing:

Required for scientists who will do qualitative research. They must approach the phenomenon with an open mind and without prejudice.

Confounding variable:

Variable that was not taken into account prior to the investigation, but could ultimately have a lot of influence and could even be the cause of the effect that was observed.

Discourse analysis:

Qualitative research method that investigates how the social relationships between people are determined by the language they speak.

Focus group:

In a focus group, a group of participants is put together to discuss openly about specific topics. The interaction between the participants during the focus group can provide valuable information.

Grounded theory:

Example of a qualitative research method that tries to understand what happens in a certain situation and tries to gain a theoretical insight into this situation based on qualitative analysis and induction based on collected data.

Ideographic approach:

The conclusions of a study stay limited to the phenomenon under study.

Illusory correlation:

Perception of a correlation between events for which no independent evidence can be found.

Interpretative phenomenological analysis:

A qualitative research method in psychology that tries to understand how a phenomenon is  experienced by the people involved.

Nomothetic approach:

This is an investigation that seeks to formulate universal principles that go beyond the limits of the study.

Qualitative research methods:

Research methods based on the understanding of phenomena in their historical and socio-cultural context. These are associated with the hermeneutic approach that is based on learning to understand the meaning of a situation.

Quantitative imperative:

Bias that deals with the tendency to find only measurable subjects interesting because quantitative research methods require numerical data.

Quantitative research methods:

Research methods based on quantifiable data. Quantitative research methods are associated with the natural science approach based on the hypothetical-deductive model.

Semi-structured interview:

This is an interview in which each interviewee gets a small set of core questions, bufor the rest of the time is encouraged to speak  freely.

How do biological, psychological and sociological influences relate to psychology? - Chapter 12

Biopsychosocial model:

The biopsychosocial model is an extension of a medical model about human functioning. This model not only focuses on biological aspects, but also on psychological and social factors.

Diathesis stress model:

The model assumes that the individual on the one hand carries a vulnerability and that on the other hand environmental factors (sources of stress) play a role. Vulnerability stands for the predisposition that someone has for developing a mental disorder. The probability that a person has a mental disorder depends on the vulnerability of the person (diathesis) and the amount of stress experienced by the person. The founder for this model was Bohman.

Eugenics:

Eugenics is asocial philosophy that claims that the fate of a nation can be improved by selective breeding of the inhabitants.

Evolutionary psychology:

Psychology approach that seeks to understand human behavior based on natural selection and evolutionary theory.

Gate control theory of pain:

Pain perception theory that assumes that the nerve signals that transport the pain must first pass through a kind of gate before they reach the brain. The pain signals can be made stronger or weaker at this gate. Theory formulated by Melzack and Wall.

Inclusive fitness:

Theory of evolutionary biology in which the genetic success of an organism is determined by the degree of cooperation and altruistic behavior. The theory suggests that altruism between organisms sharing a certain percentage of genes ensures that those genes are passed on to future generations.

Theory is also used in evolutionary psychology and states that behavior is not only motivated by wanting to survive, but also because you want everyone who shares your genes to survive. The degree of motivation depends on the degree to which people are related.

Instinct:

An instinct is an innate and steady response that is automatically triggered by an appropriate stimulus. Instincts were widely used at the beginning of the 20th century to explain motivation.

Nature-nurture debate:

Debate about the contributions of genetic and environmental factors to the development of (human) traits. Nature: all characteristics of the individual are determined by predisposition, for example the genetic material. Nurture: all characteristics of the individual are determined by education, in particular by the living environment.

Observational learning:

This is when one learns from others by observing their actions and actions and seeing if these actions are subsequently rewarded or punished.

Parental investment theory:

This theory was developed by the American evolutionary biologist and sociobiologist Robert L. Trivers around 1972. In evolutionary psychology, this theory attempts to explain the dynamics between parents and their children. The theory states that if one of the parents, the mother or the father, spends more time than the other in the upbringing, the parent who spends more time with his children will be more critical about which person will start a family with his child.

Social Darwinism:

The ideas of social Darwinism mainly come from sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903). Social Darwinism was mainly proclaimed in England and the US at the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries. It stated that a society could develop further if the weak fellow human beings died and the strong ones flourished.

Strong social situation:

In some social situations, all people behave in the same way despite the fact that everyone is biologically different from each other and all gain knowledge in a different way. This is because the personal characteristics that we think keep us under control no longer matter at all in certain situations (Stanford Prison Experiment).

Tit-for-tat strategy:

Evolutionary psychology strategy proposed to explain how evolutionarily motivated individuals cooperate in situations of mutual dependency and benefit.

What is the influence of psychology on society? - Chapter 13

Ethical code of conduct:

Is a protocol that includes all the ethics-related conditions to which a study must adhere.

Hidden racism:

Promoting one's own race through non-conspicuous prejudices about other groups (usually by ignoring their contribution). Racism is therefore hidden and does not stand out consciously, but is pronounced unconsciously.

Informed consent:

Central principle in ethics that states that people can only participate in a study after they are well informed about what the study entails and what exactly will happen. Is usually on paper and this must then be signed by the participants so that it is entirely clear that the participant has voluntarily agreed to participate in the study.

Metaphor:

Stands for an analogy from another area that helps to map a new, complex problem by making reference to a better understood phenomenon.

Psychologization:

Word that has two different meanings. Can refer to: (1) the fact that emotional ties and personal well-being are of great importance in primary social relationships, or (2) refers to the growing influence of psychology on the way people see themselves and interact with others.

Stigma:

A stigma is a brand mark, a scandal that is linked to a specific person. Stigma can also represent a prejudice about a certain person or other culture that lives among a population. Goffman gives the following definition of a stigma: "an attribute that is deeply discrediting and that reduces the bearer from a whole and usual person to a tainted, discounted one".