Cohen (2018). Assessment, careers, and business

Personal interest is closely related to occupational fulfilment and success. These interests are solidified by the age of 15 and will remain relatively stable throughout life. It promotes better performance (1), greater productivity (2) and greater job satisfaction (3).

An interest measure refers to an instrument designed to evaluate testtakers’ likes, dislikes, leisure activities, curiosities and involvements in various pursuits for the purpose of comparison with groups of members of various occupations and professions.

The Strong Interest Inventory was created by selecting hundreds of items that could distinguish interests of a person by that person’s occupation (1), administering this to people representative of occupations (2), keep the items with discriminative ability (3) and construct a final version where one’s interests are mapped out against different occupations (4).

Holland’s theory of vocational personality types states that there are six personality types (i.e. realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising and conventional) and vocational choice reflects one of the personality types. Race norming refers to the process of adjusting scores to show an individual testtaker’s standing within one’s racial group.

Aptitude in high school predicts job performance. However, job satisfaction was not predicted by aptitude in high school and job satisfaction and job performance are not predicted by interest tests. There are several tests measuring specific aptitude which can be useful in predicting job performance in a specific occupation.

According to Hunter, there are five families of jobs; setting up (1), feeding and off-bearing (2), synthesising and coordinating (3), analysing, compiling and computing (4) and copying and comparing (5). Recommendations for individual test takers (e.g. general aptitude test battery) could be generalized to various jobs.

Personality has been measured as a predictor for occupation and to determine which occupation would fit a person. An integrity test refers to a narrowly designed personality test specifically designed to predict an employee’s integrity (e.g. theft). These tests are characterized as criterion-focused occupational personality scales. Overt integrity tests ask straight-forward questions regarding integrity and personality-based measures which employs personality-based items to predict integrity.

No relationship between personality and work performance has been found, partially because there is no consensus on the definition of work performance. In addition to that, it is unclear which aspect of personality should be measured. There are personality traits that appear to be helpful for some types of jobs (e.g. high conscientiousness, high extraversion, low neuroticism).

The emotional disposition of children is related to job satisfaction. There are also other measures that have been used to predict job satisfaction and work performance (e.g. cultural adaptation).

Task change refers to a shift in tasks but the job remains the same. Position change refers to a change in job with the same employer. Occupation change refers to a shift in duties and work settings. Career transition is an exit strategy, such as retirement.

Screening refers to a relatively superficial process of evaluation based on certain minimal standards, criteria or requirements. Selection refers to a process whereby each person evaluated for a position will be either accepted or rejected for that position. Classification refers to categorization with respect to two or more criteria. Placement refers to a disposition, transfer or assignment to a group or category that may be made on the basis of one criterion. Classification and placement do not refer to acceptance of rejection for a position.

The resumé (1), the letter of application (2), the application form (3), letters of recommendation (4), interviews (5), portfolio assessment (6) or a performance test (7) can be used as methods of assessment for placement, selection or classification.

Letters of recommendation are not the best way of assessment as only the most positive letters of recommendation will be used (1) and not everyone writing a letter of recommendation has the same observational and writing skills (2). An interview is prone to biases. Portfolio assessment refers to an evaluation of an individual’s work sample for the purpose of making some screening, selection, classification or placement decision. In portfolio assessment, the assessor has the opportunity to evaluate many work samples created by the assessee (1), obtain some understanding of the assessee’s work-related thought processes and habits (2) and question the assessee further regarding aspects of one’s work-related thoughts or habits (3).

The in-basket technique simulates the way a manager or executive deals with an in-basket filled with mails, memos, announcements and notices. Participants have limited time to deal with everything, which requires problem-solving skills, planning, creativity and written communication skills.

The assessment centre refers to an organizationally standardized procedure for evaluation involving multiple assessment techniques. Physical requirements of a job need to be taken into account when screening, selecting, classifying and placing applicants. A physical test can be defined as measurement that entails evaluation of one’s somatic health and intactness and observable sensory and motor abilities. A drug test can be defined as an evaluation undertaken to determine the presence of alcohol and other psychotropic substances.

Drug tests are controversial, however, due to the false positives and negatives and because of the lack of validity of the drug tests.

Cognitive-based tests are a popular tool of selection because they have been shown to be valid predictors of future performance. However, these tests have become controversial because of differences in outcomes between groups (e.g. Asians consistently scoring higher than whites). This may limit diversity in the workplace.

Productivity refers to output or value yielded relative to work effort made. This can be assessed using the forced distribution technique. This technique involves distributing a predetermined number or percentage of assessees into various categories that describe performance (e.g. satisfactory, unsatisfactory). Productivity can also be checked by looking at the number of absences within a given period. The critical incidents technique involves recording positive and negative employee behaviour. Peer-ratings can also be used. However, peer-ratings are prone to bias and retaliation if a person gives a low rating.

A team refers to two or more people who interact interdependently toward a common and valued goal and who have been assigned specific roles or functions to perform. The motivation for a person to accept a job is not always the same motivation a person has to retain the job. Differences in motivation between employees might be explained by the expectancy of outcomes through their efforts (i.e. efficacy).

Alderfer’s theory states that once a need is satisfied, the organism might strive to satisfy it at a greater need and when one need is frustrated, energy might be channelled into satisfying a need at another level.

Intrinsic motivation refers to having an internal driving force for motivation and effort (e.g. work satisfaction). This consists of subfactors that concern the challenge of work tasks (1) and subfactors that concern the enjoyment of work (2). Extrinsic motivation refers to having an external driving force for motivation and effort (e.g. money). This consists of subfactors that concern the compensation for work (1) and external influences (e.g. recognition) (2).

Burnout refers to a psychological syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and reduced personal accomplishment that can occur among individuals who work with other people in some capacity. Emotional exhaustion refers to an inability to give of oneself emotionally to others. Depersonalization refers to distancing from other people and developing cynical attitudes toward them. Some occupations are characterized by higher levels of burnout than others.

An attitude refers to a learned disposition to react in some characteristic manner to a particular stimulus (e.g. an object). Satisfied workers are believed to be more productive (1), more consistent in work output (2) and less likely to be absent (3). Job satisfaction refers to a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences. Organizational commitment refers to the strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in a particular organization. Organizational culture refers to the totality of socially transmitted behaviour patterns characteristic of a particular organization or company. This includes the structure of the organization and the roles within it.