Preface

Coping is an important mediator for experiences that shape personal development. In addition, coping influences adaptability and resilience in difficult situations. Coping consists of constantly changing, behavioral and cognitive attempts to meet external and internal requirements that seem to go beyond the resources of the individual. Children may be limited in their coping strategies compared to adults due to cognitive, affective, expressive, social factors, development and differences in experience. Children are also limited by realistic limitations, such as the ability to avoid stress factors, and by their personal and financial dependence on their parents. While adult coping strategies are relatively more based on daily struggles and large (long-term) events in life compared to children, children's coping strategies are more focused on the situational context.

How to classify stress factors?

Coping is directly related to stress factors. A distinction is made between controllable and uncontrollable stress factors. These different stress factors require different coping strategies. The impact of a stress factor on a child can be smaller compared to the effect on an adult, because it is partly taken care of by family and because children are not familiar with the way events are connected to each other. In addition, the impact of stress factors on children can also be greater compared to that on adults due to a lack of knowledge and lack of experience to guide their responses. It is therefore difficult for them to assess in a situation to what extent they have control over the situation.   

How to operationalize "coping"?

It is best to look at coping with a process model, in which the measurement of coping is sensitive to situational and changes over time, rather than employing a trait model, which states that coping is consistent over time and situations. 

What are conceptual models of coping among children and adolescents?

Problem and emotion-focused coping model

Coping strategies can be classified into problem and emotion-oriented strategies. The first strategy focuses on adjusting the stress factor or the problem, while the second focuses on the regulation of emotional states associated which are associated with the stress factor. Moos and Billings (1983) made a similar classification, but they named it practically-oriented attempts (the goal of avoiding or solving problems), emotion-oriented attempts (the goal of dampening or counteracting negative feelings) and cognition-oriented attempts (changing or minimizing the assessment of a threat).          

Primary and secondary control model

Another format of coping is primary and secondary control. In primary control, an attempt is made to make the environment meet its own wishes as much as possible. With secondary control, an attempt is made to adapt the self as well as possible to the existing situation. Primary control is better if you want to tackle a situation that you actually control and can therefore change. In secondary control the situation cannot be changed and therefore it is better to accept the situation as it is. Primary control is influenced by your internal state, while secondary control only takes place when you have learned about your environment. Therefore, it takes longer before secondary control is obtained compared to primary control.

The approach and avoidance model

Another classification of coping is a distinction between approach and avoidance. Approach or active coping is characterized by monitoring, attempts to actively seek information, show concern and make plans when confronted with problems. Avoidance coping is characterized by avoidance, blunting, passive coping, repression and distraction when confronted with a problem. Avoidance coping is often associated with poor functioning. Approach coping seems related to better functioning.

The convergence of models

There seems to be an overarching relationship between the multiple classification models. The first group of coping strategies can be described as tackling the stress factor directly, and attempts to change or control some aspects of the individual, environment or relationship between them to reduce stress. This includes a problem-oriented approach to the problem. The second group of coping strategies involve the regulation of negative emotions associated with a stressful event. This involves emotion-focused coping and avoidance of the stress factor or problem.

Which material errors can occur?

Descriptive studies: coping strategies used by specific age groups

Toddlers and preschoolers (2-7)

Medical stress factors

When people are confronted with medical stress factors, they often employ avoidance techniques such as behavioral distractions and problem-oriented avoidance techniques and less often use cognitive distraction and emotion-oriented avoidance techniques. 

Social stress factors

When people are confronted with social stress factors they more often use problem-oriented strategies compared to emotion-focused strategies. Examples of these strategies are: problem solving, problem-oriented support and active resistance. 

Academic stress factors

For academic stress factors, more problem-oriented than emotion-oriented strategies were used, such as: problem- oriented avoidance, direct problem-solving and problem- oriented aggression.     

Primary school children (7-12)

Medical stress factors

With medical stress factors, primary school children make more use of avoidance techniques compared to approach techniques. In comparison with younger children, older children make more use of cognitive avoidance and make less use of problem-oriented avoidance. They are also more emotion-oriented and less problem-oriented. As children grow older, they make more use of emotion-oriented techniques compared to problem-oriented techniques. 

Social stress factors

Social stress factors are mainly tackled by problem-oriented strategies, such as: problem solving, problem- oriented aggression, interventions for quarreling with the parents and reassurance to the parents.     

Academic stress factors

The academic stress factors are usually tackled with the help of problem-oriented strategies, such as direct problem solving and problem-oriented avoidance. Older children reported using positive self-talk as an emotion-focused coping technique, while younger almost never make use of positive self-talk. 

Self-identified stress factors

Emotion-focused coping is often employed when the focus is on anxiety, self-calming, and positive self-expression. 10-year-olds are more aware of emotion regulation as a coping mechanism compared to 7-year-olds, but they are not yet able to use the strategies properly. Social support also seems to be important. Toddlers and preschoolers make more use of avoidance techniques compared to primary school children.

Adolescents (13-20)

Medical stress factors

Medical stress factors are addressed by means of emotion-oriented strategies such as positive self-speech and distraction. Adolescents deal with medical stress factors with a more approach-oriented strategy compared to younger children.

Social stress factors

Adolescents, in contrast to younger children, use more emotion-focused strategies with an emphasis on active cognitive coping in social stress factors. Adolescents also often make use of direct problem solving and seeking support.

Academic stress factors

Adolescents make extensive use of emotion-oriented and problem-oriented strategies. Emotion-oriented strategies include anxious expectations, positive self-determination, a focus on the task, seeking support, reducing tension and wishful thinking.

Self-identified stress factors

Relationship problems are the most important stress factors among 14 to 16 year olds. As children get older they will use a wider range of coping strategies. The preference for one of the two categories becomes less strong and they make better use of cognitive strategies when confronted with emotional situations.

How do age differences play a role in the use of coping strategies?

Studies that compare preschool to primary school

Attending primary school means employing of emotion-focused and cognitive coping strategies a lot more than attending preschool. So, the use of problem-oriented strategies is decreasing. Less use is made of the support of the caregiver and of the support of peers. There appears to be a reduction in the use of avoidance techniques. Finally, children are making more use of stress factor-specific strategies as they get older.

Comparisons between the different age groups in primary school

Children will use a greater variety of cognitive strategies during primary school. Less social support is sought, although the preference of support from peers is slowly shifting towards the parents. This can mean that children get to know how other children see them during primary school and are therefore less inclined to show their weaknesses. In addition, it seems that children are getting better at choosing the appropriate coping strategy for a specific stress factor. This may be because they are better at conceptualizing the stress factor but also because they are better at operational thinking.

Comparisons between primary school children and adolescents

From primary to secondary school, children seem to start using fewer different strategies, but the use of cognitive strategies seems to be increasing. This is probably due to an increase in cognitive capacities. Less problem-oriented strategies are used.

Comparisons between the different age groups of adolescents

During adolescence, the use of behavioral avoidance strategies appears to be declining and the use of cognitive distraction techniques is increasing. Young adolescents use more emotion-oriented strategies than problem-oriented strategies. This is the other way around for older adolescents.

How do different age group apply coping strategies and adjustment?

Toddlers and preschool children (3-7)

Strategies such as aggression, revenge and outbursts of anger are not socially acceptable when experiencing conflicts with peers. There is a small indication that expressing dissatisfaction and problem-solving ability do have positive consequences. Seeking support appears to be positive for sociometric status and approach strategies are adaptive in dealing with medical stress factors.

Primary school children (8-12)

Active coping or solving a problem immediately reduces internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Cognitive strategies such as self-criticizing, negative affect and escape-thoughts are associated with more fear. Conversely, cognitive distraction, calming oneself and solving a problem immediately leads to reduced anxiety. Seeking support and responding to parental conflicts are positively related to internalizing symptoms and behavioral problems. Emotion-focused coping and reduced problem-focused coping are associated with aggression, delinquency, and thinking disorders. Avoidance strategies are related to more depression, anxiety and behavioral problems.

Adolescents (13-18)

Distraction, coping, parental support, problem solving, and social entertainment are associated with less internalizing symptoms. Conversely, self-destruction and aggression cause more internalizing symptoms. Emotion and problem-oriented coping, avoidance and parental support, heavy physical activity and relaxation are related to less substance abuse. This also applies to support of peers, distractions, aggression and feelings of ventilation. Emotional discharge, acceptance, cognitive and behavioral avoidance techniques are related to more externalizing and internalizing problems. Conversely, there is a better adaptation to the internalizing and externalizing symptoms of cognitive coping, practical coping, searching for alternative rewards, social support approach techniques, problem solving and positive re-evaluation.

Discussion

Obtaining coping strategies

Social development factors influence the acquisition of coping in children. This includes the observed social acceptance, social comparisons and perspective. Young children experience feelings of support through the activities of their parents. Relationships with peers become increasingly important as the child grows older. Social development ensures the use of social support and social interactions which are crucial for the development of cognitive skills that affect emotion-focused coping strategies.

Adaptation and coping from a development perspective

A number of similarities are visible between different age groups. Expressing anger, emotional discharge and aggression are positively related to externalizing symptoms. Problem solving, rewarding and demanding activities are related to better adjustments. More use of approach strategies was associated with better functioning, but with more internalizing problems among toddlers and preschoolers. Escape-thoughts, cognitive and behavioral avoidance are related to poorer functioning. Conversely, general cognitive strategies lead to better functioning.

Adaptation and coping from a situational perspective

Situational stress factors

The use of approach strategies is related to seeking support, positive cognitive restructuring, making cognitive decisions and solving problems directly. Avoidance behavior in conflict situations is associated with fewer externalizing symptoms.

Medical stress factors

A strong relationship has been found between an approach technique and the speed of recovery from a medical event or problem.

Academic stress factors

Approach techniques are associated with higher self-esteem, social acceptance, school competence and performance than is the case with self-blame techniques. High school students seek help more often when they experience problems with peers than when they experience school and family problems. There is also more problem solving when confronted with age-related and school problems compared to with family problems.