What is this chapter about?

This chapter is about prejudice and discrimination. The chapter discusses the nature and dimensions of prejudice, prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behaviour, targets of prejudice and discrimination, and forms of discrimination. It also discusses stigma and other negative effects of prejudice and discrimination. The chapter also discusses theories that attempt to explain the origins and maintenance of prejudice and discrimination; the social identity theory, the realistic conflict theory, and the social learning theory.

What is prejudice?

Prejudice is defined as a negative attitude or affective response towards a group or its members, typically based on preconceived notions or stereotypes. This negative attitude can manifest in a variety of ways, including discriminatory behaviour towards individuals or groups, or the propagation of negative stereotypes about them.

Prejudice can occur at different levels, including individual, institutional, and cultural levels. At the individual level, prejudice can be held by an individual towards a specific group or groups. At the institutional level, prejudice can be present in the policies and practices of organizations, such as hiring or housing discrimination. At the cultural level, prejudice can be part of the wider social norms and values of a society, which can perpetuate negative attitudes and behaviours towards certain groups.

Prejudice can be explicit or implicit and can vary in its degree of intensity. Explicit prejudice is conscious and deliberate, while implicit prejudice is often unconscious and automatic. The intensity of prejudice can range from mild, such as holding negative stereotypes about a group, to more extreme forms such as hate speech or violence towards individuals based on their group membership.

It is important to note that while prejudice can occur at an individual level, it can also be a result of larger social and cultural factors. Prejudice can arise due to socialization processes, such as learning stereotypes from family and peers, as well as from wider cultural influences, such as media representations of certain groups. Understanding the nature and extent of prejudice is important in order to address it and promote greater social harmony and inclusion.

How do prejudiced attitudes lead to discriminatory behaviour?

Prejudice can lead to discriminatory behaviour when negative attitudes and beliefs about a group are translated into actions or behaviours that disadvantage or harm members of that group. Discrimination can be direct, such as refusing to hire someone based on their membership in a particular group, or indirect, such as implementing policies that disproportionately affect members of a certain group.

Discrimination can take place in different domains. Examples of discrimination include employment discrimination, which occurs when employers make decisions based on factors such as race, gender, or sexual orientation rather than on qualifications or job performance. Housing discrimination occurs when individuals or institutions deny housing opportunities or impose different terms and conditions based on a person's membership in a particular group. These are only some examples of discrimination, which can take place everywhere.

Prejudice and discrimination can also be directed towards any group based on a range of social identities including race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, religion, age, and disability. However, some groups are more likely to be targets of prejudice and discrimination than others. This includes historically marginalized and oppressed groups such as racial and ethnic minorities, women, LGBTQ+ people, and people with disabilities.

The intersectionality of multiple social identities can also contribute to increased experiences of prejudice and discrimination. For example, an individual who is both a woman and a member of a racial or ethnic minority group may face unique forms of discrimination that are not experienced by individuals who belong to only one of those groups. In other words, the negative effects of prejudice and discrimination can be compounded when individuals belong to multiple marginalized groups.

Institutional discrimination refers to policies or practices within an organization or society that result in differential treatment or outcomes for individuals or groups based on their membership in a particular social group. This can include things like employment discrimination, housing discrimination, and educational discrimination. Interpersonal discrimination, on the other hand, refers to discriminatory behaviour that is enacted by individuals towards members of a particular social group. This can take many forms, such as overt acts of discrimination or microaggressions, which are subtle forms of discrimination that may not be intentionally harmful but can still have negative effects.

Self-fulfilling prophecies are another form of discrimination, in which negative expectations about a particular group can lead to behaviours and actions that confirm and perpetuate those expectations. For example, if a teacher expects students from a particular racial or ethnic group to perform poorly, they may unconsciously give them less attention and resources, leading to lower academic achievement.

Prejudice and discrimination can have harmful effects on individuals, including stress, reduced opportunities, and even physical harm in cases of hate crimes. These effects can also extend to society as a whole, including increased social tension and conflict, reduced social cohesion, and a perpetuation of inequalities. These negative effects make it important to address prejudice and discrimination and promote more equality and social justice.

What are the effects of prejudice?

Prejudice and discriminatory behaviour lead to stigmatization and stigmatization leads to more prejudice and discriminatory behaviour. Stigmatization occurs when individuals are labeled or defined based on their group membership, such as their race, gender, sexual orientation, or religion. This labeling can lead to negative consequences, including social exclusion, more discrimination, and limited opportunities.

Stereotype threat is another effect of prejudice, in which individuals feel pressure to avoid confirming negative stereotypes about their group. For example, a woman taking a math test may experience stereotype threat if she is aware of the stereotype that women are not good at math, leading her to perform worse on the test. This fear of confirming a negative stereotype can have a negative impact on individuals' performance, self-esteem, and well-being.

How can discrimination be explained?

Discrimination only seems to have terrible consequences, so why do we still have prejudice? There are different theories in social psychology that try to give an explanation for discrimination and prejudice.

According to social identity theory, prejudice and discrimination arise from the tendency to categorize people into in-groups and out-groups, and to favor the in-group over the out-group. This categorization process is driven by a basic human need to form and maintain a positive social identity, which can be achieved by identifying with a group that is seen as superior to other groups. This leads to the development of ingroup bias, or the tendency to favor one's own group over other groups.

Realistic conflict theory proposes that prejudice and discrimination arise from the competition over limited resources between groups. This competition creates a sense of threat and conflict, which leads to negative attitudes and behaviours toward the out-group. In this view, prejudice and discrimination are a result of the perceived threat to one's own group's interests, rather than simply the result of categorization processes.

Social learning theory proposes that prejudice and discrimination are learned through observation and modeling of others' attitudes and behaviours. People learn to associate negative stereotypes with particular groups through exposure to media, socialization, and interpersonal interactions. In this view, prejudice and discrimination can be unlearned through exposure to positive attitudes and behaviours toward members of the targeted group, and through efforts to disrupt the transmission of negative stereotypes.

In addition to individual-level factors, cultural norms and ideologies can also perpetuate prejudice and discrimination. Racism and sexism are examples of cultural norms and ideologies that can contribute to the maintenance of prejudice and discrimination.

Efforts to reduce prejudice and discrimination can involve interventions at both the individual and societal levels. Individual-level interventions can include education and contact with members of different groups to increase understanding and empathy. Societal-level interventions can include policy changes and social movements to promote greater equality and justice. Overall, reducing prejudice and discrimination requires a multifaceted approach that addresses the complex and interrelated factors that contribute to their existence.