What is this chapter about?

The previous chapters, especially chapter 8, were about group behaviour. This chapter is about intergroup behaviour. The chapter discusses various theories and concepts related to intergroup behaviour, including realistic conflict theory, social identity theory, and contact theory. It also explores the role of social cognition in intergroup behaviour, as well as the influence of intergroup emotions and collective behaviour.

The chapter highlights the negative consequences of intergroup conflict, such as prejudice, discrimination, and violence, and the importance of improving intergroup relations. Strategies for improving intergroup relations, including education, cross-group friendship, and intergroup contact programs, are also discussed.

What is intergroup behaviour?

Intergroup behaviour refers to the ways in which people behave toward members of other groups. This behaviour can be either positive or negative. Positive intergroup behaviour can include things like cooperation, where groups work together towards common goals. Negative intergroup behaviour, on the other hand, can involve prejudice, discrimination, and conflict between groups. Examples of negative intergroup behaviour include stereotyping, hostility, and even violence between groups. It's important to note that intergroup behaviour can be influenced by many factors, including social identity, social cognition, and intergroup emotions. Understanding these factors can help us better understand why certain intergroup behaviours occur and how they can be improved.

How does relative deprivation lead to social unrest?

Relative deprivation refers to the perception that one's own group is not receiving its fair share of resources or opportunities compared to other groups. This can occur even if the group's objective circumstances are actually improving or better than other group’s circumstances. When people experience relative deprivation, they may feel frustration, anger, or feelings of injustice, which can lead to social unrest, such as protests, strikes, or riots.

For example, if a group feels that they are not getting fair wages or job opportunities compared to another group, they may engage in collective action to try to address the perceived injustice. In some cases, relative deprivation can lead to more extreme forms of intergroup conflict, such as terrorism or intergroup violence. Understanding the role of relative deprivation in intergroup behaviour is important for developing strategies to reduce conflict and promote positive intergroup relations.

How can intergroup conflicts be explained?

The realistic conflict theory and the social identity theory were also explained in chapter 10 to explain prejudice and discrimination. Discriminative behaviour can be seen as an intergroup conflict, but group conflicts are even broader, as they do not necessarily have to include prejudice. These theories can also explain the mechanism of intergroup conflicts as a whole.

How does realistic conflict theory explain intergroup conflicts?

Realistic conflict theory proposes that intergroup conflict arises when groups compete for limited resources. When groups perceive that there are limited resources available, they may feel threatened and compete with other groups for access to these resources. This competition can lead to negative intergroup behaviour, such as prejudice, discrimination, and violence. And again: more negative behaviour, will lead to more intergroup conflicts.

For example, a study by Muzafer Sherif (1961) demonstrated the effects of realistic conflict on intergroup behaviour. The researchers divided a group of boys into two groups and placed them in a summer camp. The two groups were initially unaware of each other, but they soon began to compete for resources, such as space, sports equipment, and food. This competition led to negative intergroup behaviour, including name-calling, vandalism, and even physical fighting between the two groups.

Realistic conflict theory suggests that intergroup conflict can be reduced by increasing the availability of resources or by reducing the perception of competition between groups. For example, if groups can work together towards common goals or if they perceive that resources are not limited, intergroup conflict may be reduced. Understanding the role of realistic conflict in intergroup behaviour is important for developing strategies to reduce conflict and promote positive intergroup relations.

How does social identity theory explain intergroup conflicts?

Social identity theory suggests that people derive part of their self-concept from the groups they belong to. In other words, our sense of identity is not just based on individual characteristics, but also on the social groups we belong to. Social identity can lead to positive intergroup behaviour, such as group pride and solidarity, but it can also lead to negative intergroup behaviour, such as prejudice and discrimination.

According to social identity theory, people categorize themselves and others into different social groups based on shared characteristics, such as race, ethnicity, nationality, religion, gender, and so on. These social categories then become an important part of our self-concept and influence our behaviour towards members of our own and other groups.

Positive intergroup behaviour can occur when people identify strongly with their social group and feel a sense of belonging and pride in their group. This can lead to positive attitudes and behaviours towards members of their own and other groups, such as cooperation, empathy, and support. For example, members of a sports team may feel a strong sense of group identity and work together effectively to achieve their goals.

However, social identity can also lead to negative intergroup behaviour, such as prejudice and discrimination. This occurs when people define their social group in opposition to other groups and view them as inferior or threatening. Negative intergroup behaviour can lead to conflict, violence, and exclusion of members of other groups. It is again important to understand the role of social identity in intergroup behaviour in order to develop strategies to promote positive intergroup relations and reduce intergroup conflict.

What is the role of social cognition on intergroup behaviour?

Social cognition refers to the mental processes involved in perceiving, interpreting, and making judgments about social situations (see chapter 2 for a more in dept explanation of social cognition). These mental processes include attention, perception, memory, and reasoning. Social cognition plays an important role in intergroup behaviour, as it influences how people perceive and evaluate members of different social groups.

One way in which social cognition can influence intergroup behaviour is through stereotyping. Stereotyping occurs when people make assumptions about the characteristics and behaviours of members of a social group based on their group membership. Stereotypes can be positive or negative, but they often, even if they seem positive, lead to unfair and inaccurate evaluations of individuals based on their group membership.

Another way in which social cognition can influence intergroup behaviour is through prejudice. Prejudice refers to negative attitudes or evaluations of members of a social group based solely on their group membership. Prejudice can lead to discriminatory behaviour, such as exclusion, unfair treatment, and hostility towards members of a particular social group.

Social cognition also plays a role in reducing intergroup bias and promoting positive intergroup relations. According to contact theory, positive contact between members of different social groups can help to break down stereotypes, reduce anxiety, and promote positive attitudes towards members of other groups. Contact theory suggests that contact between groups is most effective in these cases:

• Equal status of members of the different groups, no power imbalance.

• Common goals of the different groups that they can work towards together.

• Intergroup cooperation to work towards common goals.

• Social norms that support positive intergroup relations and discourage prejudice and discrimination.

• Personal interaction and the opportunity to get to know each other on an individual level.

Contact is however not always successful. In some cases, contact between groups can actually increase prejudice and conflict, particularly when members of different groups have negative prior experiences or beliefs about each other. This makes it even more important to know these conditions that can help reduce intergroup conflicts.
 

What are intergroup emotions?

Intergroup emotions refer to the emotions that people experience in response to their intergroup interactions. These emotions can include anger, fear, anxiety, guilt, and shame. Intergroup emotions can arise from a variety of situations, such as competition for resources, perceived injustice or unfairness, or threats to one's social identity.

Intergroup emotions can have a significant impact on intergroup behaviour. For example, anger and hostility towards members of another group can lead to negative intergroup behaviour, such as prejudice, discrimination, and even violence. Fear and anxiety towards members of another group can lead to avoidance and social withdrawal.

On the other hand, positive intergroup emotions, such as empathy and compassion, can lead to more positive intergroup behaviour, such as helping and cooperation. Intergroup emotions can also influence how people perceive and interpret intergroup situations, leading to different attitudes and behaviours.

Research has shown that intergroup emotions can be influenced by a variety of factors, including social norms, group membership, and individual differences in personality and emotional regulation. Interventions aimed at improving intergroup relations can also target intergroup emotions by promoting positive emotions and reducing negative emotions.
 

What is collective behaviour?

Collective behaviour refers to the spontaneous and unstructured behaviour of a group of people who share a common interest or purpose. This type of behaviour can emerge quickly, often in response to a particular event or situation, and can include a range of actions, from peaceful demonstrations to violent protests.

Crowds, which are a common form of collective behaviour, can exhibit different types of behaviour depending on a variety of factors. For example, the size and composition of the group can influence the behaviour of individuals within the crowd. Larger crowds may be more likely to engage in destructive behaviour, while smaller crowds may be more focused on a specific purpose or goal.

The cohesion of the group can also play a role in determining the behaviour of the crowd. Groups that are highly cohesive may be more likely to engage in collective action, as individuals within the group feel a strong sense of solidarity and support for one another. However, highly cohesive groups may also be more likely to engage in deviant behaviour, as the group may provide a sense of anonymity and reduce the sense of personal responsibility.

In addition to size and cohesion, other factors can also influence the behaviour of crowds, such as the nature of the situation, the presence of authority figures, and the availability of resources. For example, crowds may be more likely to engage in violent behaviour if they perceive a threat to their safety or well-being, or if they feel that their demands are not being met.

Collective behaviour and the behaviour of crowds can be complex and difficult to predict, as they are influenced by a range of factors. However, understanding the underlying processes that contribute to these behaviours can help to promote more positive forms of collective action and improve intergroup relations.

How can intergroup relations be improved?

Improving intergroup relations is an important goal for social psychologists, as it can lead to more positive interactions between different groups and reduce the likelihood of intergroup conflict. Addressing the underlying causes of intergroup conflict is a critical step in improving intergroup relations. This can involve identifying and challenging negative stereotypes and attitudes, promoting empathy and understanding between groups, and working to reduce feelings of relative deprivation.

One effective strategy for improving intergroup relations is to promote positive intergroup contact and cooperation, as the contact theory proposes. This can involve encouraging members of different groups to work together on a common goal or project or providing opportunities for individuals to interact in a positive and supportive environment. Intergroup contact programs, such as those that bring together individuals from different cultural or ethnic backgrounds, have been shown to be effective in improving intergroup relations and reducing prejudice and discrimination.

Another strategy for improving intergroup relations is education. This can involve teaching individuals about the history and culture of different groups, as well as promoting empathy and understanding between groups.

Cross-group friendships can also be an effective way to improve intergroup relations, as they can provide individuals with a more personal and positive experience of interacting with members of different groups.