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What is developmental psychology?

What is developmental psychology?

Developmental psychology is a fascinating field that explores the lifespan changes in human beings. It delves into the physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and moral development that individuals experience from conception to death.

What are the main features of developmental psychology?

  • Lifespan Approach: It examines development across all stages of life, from prenatal development to old age.
  • Multidimensional Focus: Developmental psychology recognizes that growth occurs in various domains – physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and moral.
  • Nature vs. Nurture: This field explores the complex interplay between biological (genetic) predispositions and environmental influences on development.
  • Continuity vs. Discontinuity: Developmental psychologists debate whether development is a gradual, continuous process or punctuated by distinct stages.

What are important sub-areas in developmental psychology?

  • Prenatal Development: Examines the growth and development of the fetus from conception to birth.
  • Infancy and Childhood: Focuses on rapid physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development during the early years.
  • Adolescence: Studies the physical, cognitive, and social changes experienced during puberty and teenage years.
  • Emerging Adulthood: Explores the development of identity, relationships, and career paths in young adulthood.
  • Middle Adulthood: Examines changes in physical health, cognitive abilities, and family dynamics during middle age.
  • Late Adulthood: Studies the physical, cognitive, and social changes associated with aging.

What are key concepts in developmental psychology?

  • Critical Period: A specific time window when an organism is highly susceptible to environmental influences impacting development.
  • Maturation: The biological unfolding of genetic potential, leading to physical growth and development.
  • Attachment Theory: Explores the importance of early emotional bonds with caregivers for healthy emotional and social development.
  • Cognitive Development: The process of acquiring knowledge, skills, and thinking abilities throughout life.
  • Social Development: The process by which individuals learn to interact with others and form relationships.
  • Moral Development: The development of an understanding of right and wrong, and a sense of ethical principles.

Who are influential figures in developmental psychology?

  • Jean Piaget (Psychologist): Pioneered the theory of cognitive development, proposing stages of cognitive growth in children.
  • Lev Vygotsky (Psychologist): Emphasized the role of social interaction and culture in cognitive development, introducing the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development.
  • Erik Erikson (Psychologist): Developed the theory of psychosocial development, proposing eight stages of psychosocial challenges individuals face throughout life.
  • John Bowlby (Psychoanalyst): Pioneered attachment theory, highlighting the significance of early emotional bonds with caregivers for healthy development.
  • Mary Ainsworth (Psychologist): Expanded upon attachment theory, identifying different attachment styles (secure, anxious, avoidant) formed in early childhood.

Why is developmental psychology important?

  • Understanding Human Development: Provides a deeper understanding of how humans grow and change throughout life.
  • Early Childhood Intervention: Helps design programs and interventions to support healthy development in children, especially those facing challenges.
  • Education: Developmental psychology informs educational practices by tailoring teaching methods to different age groups and developmental stages.
  • Parenting and Family Support: Offers insights into child development stages, fostering positive and supportive parenting practices.
  • Aging Well: Helps us understand the aging process and develop strategies to promote healthy aging physically, cognitively, and socially.

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What is child psychology?

What is child psychology?

Child psychology is a specialized field within developmental psychology that focuses specifically on the mental, emotional, social, and cognitive development of children from prenatal development through adolescence.

What are the main features of child psychology?

  • Focus on Childhood: It delves into the unique aspects of development during the early years of life.
  • Multifaceted Approach: Examines a variety of domains, including emotional well-being, cognitive abilities, social skills, and moral development.
  • Developmental Stages: Child psychology acknowledges that children progress through distinct stages with specific challenges and milestones.
  • Play and Exploration: Recognizes the importance of play and exploration in learning and development.

What are important sub-areas in child psychology?

  • Prenatal Development: Examines how experiences in the womb can impact a child's physical and mental development.
  • Infant Development: Focuses on rapid physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development during the first year of life.
  • Early Childhood Development: Studies the cognitive, social, and emotional growth that occurs between the ages of 2 and 6.
  • Middle Childhood Development: Examines the physical, cognitive, and social changes experienced during the school years (ages 6-12).
  • Adolescence: Studies the physical, cognitive, and social changes experienced during puberty and the teenage years.

What are key concepts in child psychology?

  • Attachment Theory: The importance of early emotional bonds with caregivers for healthy emotional and social development.
  • Developmental Milestones: The expected skills and abilities children acquire at different ages.
  • Cognitive Development: The process of acquiring knowledge, skills, and thinking abilities throughout childhood.
  • Social Development: The process by which children learn to interact with others and form relationships.
  • Play Therapy: A therapeutic approach using play to help children express themselves, process emotions, and develop coping mechanisms.
  • Temperament: Inborn behavioral styles and characteristics influencing children's responses to their environment.

Who are influential figures in child psychology?

  • Jean Piaget (Psychologist): Pioneered the theory of cognitive development, proposing stages of cognitive growth in children.
  • Lev Vygotsky (Psychologist): Emphasized the role of social interaction and culture in cognitive development, introducing the Zone of Proximal Development.
  • Erik Erikson (Psychologist): Developed the theory of psychosocial development, proposing eight stages of psychosocial challenges individuals face throughout life, including challenges specific to childhood.
  • John Bowlby (Psychoanalyst): Pioneered attachment theory, highlighting the significance of early emotional bonds with caregivers for healthy development.
  • Mary Ainsworth (Psychologist): Expanded upon attachment theory, identifying different attachment styles (secure, anxious, avoidant) formed in early childhood.

Why is child psychology important?

  • Promoting Healthy Development: Provides insights for optimizing a child's physical, cognitive, social, and emotional well-being.
  • Early Intervention: Helps identify developmental delays or challenges early on, allowing for timely intervention and support.
  • Understanding Behavior: Provides a framework for understanding children's behavior and responding appropriately.
  • Positive Parenting: Offers guidance on effective parenting practices that foster healthy development and nurturing relationships.
  • Educational Practices: Informs the development of age-appropriate curriculum and teaching methods in schools.

How is child psychology applied in practice?

  • Early Childhood Education: Provides the foundation for designing effective preschool and kindergarten programs.
  • Parenting Education and Support: Offers guidance on child development stages and
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Developmental psychology and child psychology: The best textbooks summarized

Developmental psychology and child psychology: The best textbooks summarized

Summaries and Study Assistance with Developmental psychology and child psychology

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  • Summary with the book: A Critical Introduction to Sport Psychology by Moran and Toner - 3rd edition
  • Summary with the book: Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology by Wicks-Nelson and Israel - 8th edition
  • Summary with the book: Adolescence by Steinberg - 12th edition
  • Summary with the book: An Introduction to Developmental Psychology by Slater and Bremner - 3rd edition
  • Summary with the book: Child and Adolescent Therapy: Cognitive-Behavioral Procedures by Kendall - 4th edition
  • Summary with the book: Cognitive Behaviour Therapy for Children and Families by Graham and Reynolds - 3rd edition
  • Summary with the book: How Children Develop by Siegler a.o. - 6th edition
  • Summary with the book: Life-Span Human Development by Sigelman and Rider - 9th edition
  • Summary with the book: The boy who was raised as a dog by Perry

About developmental psychology and child psychology

  • Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how people change and grow throughout their lifespan. Child psychology is a subfield of developmental psychology that focuses specifically on the cognitive, social, and emotional development of children.
Summaries and supporting content: 
Summaries per chapter with the 3rd edition of A Critical Introduction to Sport Psychology by Moran and Toner
Summary with the 8th edition of Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology by Wicks-Nelson and Israel - Exclusive
Summary of Adolescence by Steinberg - 12th edition - Exclusive
Summary of An Introduction to Developmental Psychology by Slater and Bremner - 3rd edition - Exclusive
Book summary of Child and Adolescent Therapy: Cognitive-Behavioral Procedures - Kendall - 4th edition
Summary of Cognitive Behaviour Therapy for Children and Families by Graham and Reynolds - 3rd edition - Exclusive
Summary of How Children Develop by Siegler a.o. - 6th edition - Exclusive
Summary of Life-Span Human Development by Sigelman and Rider - 9th edition - Exclusive
Summary of The boy who was raised as a dog by Perry
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Developmental psychology: the best scientific articles summarized

Developmental psychology: the best scientific articles summarized

Study guide with articles for Developmental psychology

Summaries and study assistance with articles for Developmental psychology

  • for 60+ summaries with articles for Developmental psychology, see the supporting content of this study guide

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Summaries and supporting content: 
Artikelsamenvatting bij The teenage brain, Surging hormones & Brain-behavior interactions during puberty van Peper & Dahl - 2013
Artikelsamenvatting bij The teenage brain: Peer influences on adolescent decision making van Albert e.a. - 2013
Artikelsamenvatting bij The teenage brain: adolescents and alcohol van Spear - 2013
Artikelsamenvatting bij Less guilty by reason of adolescence van Steinberg & Scott - 2003
Artikelsamenvatting bij Moral Identity van Hardy & Carlo - 2011
Artikelsamenvatting bij Adolescents' selective visual attention for high-status peers: The role of perceiver status and gender van Lansu e.a. - 2014
Artikelsamenvatting bij In search of explanations for early pubertal timing effects on developmental psychopathology van Ge & Natsuaki - 2009
Artikelsamenvatting bij Developmental trajectories and milestones of lesbian, gay, and bisexual young people van Savin-Williams & Cohen - 2015
Artikelsamenvatting bij Comprehensive sexuality education as a longitudinal predictor of LGBTQ name-calling and perceived willingsness to intervene in school van Baams e.a. - 2017
Artikelsamenvatting bij Incidence, clinical management, and mortality risk following self harm among children and adolescents: Cohort study in primary care van Morgan e.a. - 2017
Artikelsamenvatting bij Developmental changes in the priority of perceived status in childhood and adolescence van Lafontana & Cillessen - 2010
Artikelsamenvatting bij Studying adolescent-parent relationships from the lens of developmental psychology van Smetana - 2011 - Exclusive
Artikelsamenvatting bij The interpersonal theory of suicide and adolescent suicidal behavior van Barzilay e.a. - 2015
Artikelsamenvatting bij A Longitudinal Examination of the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide and Effects of School-Based Suicide Prevention Interventions in a Multinational Study of Adolescents van Barzilay e.a. - 2019 - Exclusive
Artikelsamenvatting bij Differences in non-suicidal self-injury and suicide attempts in adolescents van Brausch & Gutierrez - 2010
Artikelsamenvatting bij What is self-injury? van Whitlock - 2010 - Exclusive
Artikelsamenvatting bij The cutting edge: Non-Suicidal Self-Injury in Adolescence van Whitlock - 2009
Artikelsamenvatting bij A strengths based method for homeless youth van Krabbenborg e.a. - 2013
Artikelsamenvatting bij Vulnerable populations and the transition to adulthood van Osgood e.a. - 2010
Artikelsamenvatting bij Internet and social media use as a resource among homeless youth van Rice & Barman-Adhikari - 2014
Artikelsamenvatting bij Growth in adolescent delinquency and alcohol use in relation to young adult crime, alcohol use disorders, and risky sex: a comparison of youth from low- versus middle-income backgrounds van Mason et al. - 2010
Artikelsamenvatting bij The development of a diagnostic instrument to measure social information processing in children with mild to borderline intellectual disabilities van Nieuwenhuijzen e.a. - 2011
Artikelsamenvatting bij lustering of health-compromising behavior and delinquency in adolescents and adults in the Dutch population van van Nieuwenhuijzen e.a. - 2010
Artikelsamenvatting bij Online communication among adolescents: An integrated model of its attraction, opportunities, and risks van Valkenburg & Peter - 2011
Artikelsamenvatting bij Growing up wired: Social networking sites and adolescent psychosocial development van Shapiro & Margolin - 2014
Artikelsamenvatting bij Transitions to adulthood: What we can learn from the West van Fustenberg - 2013
Artikelsamenvatting bij Mapping youth transitions in Europe., Publications office of the European Union, Luxembourg - Eurofound - 2014
Artikelsamenvatting bij Developmental changes in parent- child communication throughout adolescence van Keijsers & Poulin - 2013
Artikelsamenvatting bij Parenting adolescents van Steinberg & Silk - 2002
Artikelsamenvatting bij Development during adolescence: The impact of stage-environment fit on young adolescents' experiences in schools and in families van Eccles e.a. - 1993
Artikelsamenvatting bij How US Children and adolescents spend time: what it does (and doesn't) tell us about their development van Larson - 2001
Artikelsamenvatting bij A developmental perspective on alcohol and youths 16 to 20 years of age van Brown e.a. - 2008
Artikelsamenvatting bij Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behaviour van Moffitt - 1993
Artikelsamenvatting bij Adolescence-limited and life-course persistent antisocial behaviour: a developmental taxonomy van Moffit - 1993
Artikelsamenvatting bij Reciprocal effects between parental solicitation, parental control, adolescent disclosure, and adolescent delinquency van Keijsers e.a. - 2010
Artikelsamenvatting bij “Shake It Baby, Shake It”: Media preferences, sexual attitudes and gender stereotypes among adolescents van Ter Bogt e.a. - 2010
Artikelsamenvatting bij Early Adolescent Music Preferences and Minor Delinquency van Ter Bogt e.a. - 2013
Artikelsamenvatting bij Early adolescent music preferences and minor delinquency van Ter Bogt e.a. - 2013
Artikelsamenvatting bij Music listening in Adolescence van Ter Bogt e.a. - 2011
Artikelsamenvatting bij Vulnerable youth and the transition to adulthood. ASPE Research Brief - ASPE - 2009
Artikelsamenvatting bij Peer relationships in childhood van Rubin et al. - 2005
Artikelsamenvatting bij Friendship stability and change in childhood and adolescence van Poulin & Chan - 2010
Artikelsamenvatting bij The development of delinquency and perceived friendship quality in adolescent best friendship dyads van Selfhout e.a. - 2008
Artikelsamenvatting bij The role of music preferences in early adolescents’ friendship van Selfhout e.a. - 2009
Artikelsamenvatting bij Peer selection and socialization effects on adolescent intercourse without a condom and attitudes about the costs of sex van Henry e.a. - 2007
Artikelsamenvatting bij A meta-analysis of the relations between three types of peer norms and adolescent sexual behavior van Van de Bongardt e.a. - 2015
Article summary with Romantic Relationships and Sexuality in Adolescence and Young Adulthood: The Role of Parents, Peers, and Partners by Van de Bongardt a.o. - 2015
Artikelsamenvatting bij Ouders als moderators van peer pressure bij seksuele relaties van Van de Bongardt e.a. - 2014
Artikelsamenvatting bij Understanding popularity in the peer system van Cillessen & Rose - 2005
Artikelsamenvatting bij Inequality matters: Classroom status hierarchy and adolescents’ bullying & Differential effects of the KiVa antibullying program van Garandeau e.a. - 2014
Artikelsamenvatting bij Determinants of adolescents’ active defending and passive bystanding behavior in bullying van Gini e.a. - 2008
Artikelsamenvatting bij Personal and interpersonal antecedents and consequences of victimization by peers van Hodges & Perry - 1999
Artikelsamenvatting bij The impact of peer victimization on later maladjustment: mediating and moderating effects of hostile and self-blaming attributions van Perren e.a. - 2013
Artikelsamenvatting bij Bystanders matter: Associations between defending, reinforcing, and the frequency of bullying in classrooms van Salmivalli e.a. -2011
Artikelsamenvatting bij Early parenting and children’s relational and physical aggression in the preschool and home contexts van Casas e.a. - 2006
Artikelsamenvatting bij Effectiveness of the Incredible Years Parent Training to modify disruptive and prosocial child behaviour van Menting e.a. - 2013
Artikelsamenvatting bij Friendships of aggressive youth: Considering the influences of being disliked and of being perceived as popular van Rose e.a. - 2004 - Exclusive
Artikelsamenvatting bij Effectiveness of an individual school-based intervention for children with aggressive behaviour: A randomized controlled trial van Stoltz e.a. - 2013 - Exclusive
Artikelsamenvatting bij The development of aggressive behaviour during childhood: What have we learned in the past century? van Tremblay - 2000 - Exclusive
Artikelsamenvatting bij Relational aggression in adolescents: A review of theoretical and empirical research van Voulgaridou & Kokkinos - 2015 - Exclusive
Artikelsamenvatting bij Growing up wired: Social networking sites and adolescent psychosocial development van Shapiro & Margolin - 2014
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Developmental psychology: The best concepts summarized

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Childhood: Clinical and School Psychology – Lecture 3 (UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM)

About 5% of the children and 2.5% of the adults are diagnosed with ADHD. There are several requirements for a diagnosis:

  1. There are at least six symptoms for at least six months. For people older than 17 years old, there need to be five or more symptoms.
  2. The symptoms are present before the 12th year of age.
  3. The symptoms exist in two or more areas (e.g. school; home).
  4. The symptoms interfere with social, school or professional functioning.
  5. The symptoms are not better explained by other disorders.

There are three subtypes:

  • Predominantly inattentive subtype (i.e. ADD).
    • Careless attention to detail.
    • Problems sustaining attention over time.
    • A poor follow-through (e.g. schoolwork; homework; chores).
    • A poor ability to sustain mental attention (e.g. independent work at school).
    • The child loses necessary materials (e.g. assignment
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Childhood: Clinical and School Psychology – Lecture 1 (UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM)

A case formulation refers to a hypothesis about why the problem behaviour exists and how it is maintained. This should be based on the longevity of the problems (1), consistency of problematic behaviour across situational contexts (2) and family history (3). Problematic behaviour is characterized by the four d’s:

  1. Deviance from the norm
    This refers to determining the degree to which behaviours are deviant from the norm. This can be assessed using informal testing (e.g. interview) or formal tests (e.g. test batteries).
  2. Distress
    This refers to assessing the relative impact of a disorder after the disorder has been identified.
  3. Dysfunctional
    This refers to assessing the distress that a disorder causes. For children, multiple sources of information may need to be used.
  4. Dangerous
    This refers to assessing whether there is a risk for self-harm and
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Childhood: Developmental Psychology – Lecture 7 (UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM)

The self-concept is something unique to a person. It consists of self-compassion (1), mindset (2), self-efficacy (3) and self-esteem (4). Children first view the self as something that is distinct from the body and children have some intuitive theories about the self. Eventually, the self-concept becomes stable with some fluctuations. It is influenced by culture and the developmental stage of a person.

There are age-related changes in the self-concept. The early self-concept depends on the feedback one receives (e.g. “the teacher tells me you are great!”). Later, the self-concept also depends on social comparison. This comparison is influenced by cognitive ability and self-evaluative tasks (e.g. how good one is at reading and the opportunities one has to compare oneself with others on tasks such as exams). This demonstrates that social relationships are central to the development of the self-concept (i.e. Vygotsky). The interactions and feedback in those

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Childhood: Developmental Psychology – Lecture 6 (UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM)

Plato’s paradox refers to children acquiring language without appearing to be taught it. This raises the question of how children actually learn a language.

Word segmentation is one of the challenges of learning a language (i.e. where does one word start and where does it end in a stream of sounds). One proposed mechanism of learning is statistical learning. This holds that children learn from the regularities in language (e.g. picking up on strong vs. weak words). Children at 7.5 months of age are capable of word segmentation of 2-syllable words.

Chomsky states that children have an innate deep structure. This is an underlying understanding of language which enables the child to learn language. The specific language a child learns is the surface structure. Thus, according to Chomsky, people have a language acquisition device (LAD).

Phonology refers to the sounds of a language. Phonemic awareness

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Childhood: Developmental Psychology – Lecture 5 (UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM)

The interaction between nature and nurture produces intelligent behaviour. The transactions are essential (i.e. parents change behaviour children and vice versa). The development of intelligence is continuous and there is a reciprocal interaction between the child with a biological disposition and the changing environment. This means that genes drive experience (i.e. genotype -> environment theory).

The individual multiplier effect states that there may be a small difference in nature (e.g. height) and the effect of this initial difference becomes bigger and bigger because it is multiplied by nurture (e.g. basketball analogy). This multiplier effect due to nurture can occur because of selecting environments that encourage innate differences and through additional practice.

The social multiplier effect states that a small difference between groups in nature can become greater due to the interaction between the initial difference and the environment of the group (e.g. people at a

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Childhood: Developmental Psychology – Lecture 4 (UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM)

Socialization refers to the process of developing social and emotional skills across the lifespan and is a process through generations. In this process, people develop beliefs (1) behaviours (2), values (3) and norms (4) that are appropriate in society. It is essential for healthy social development (e.g. forming positive relationships).

Socialization has three functions:

  • It regulates behaviour (e.g. morality).
  • It promotes personal growth (e.g. motivation to work hard)
  • It promotes social order (e.g. socialized adults communicate what they have learned to their own children).

Vygotsky states that the sociocultural context influences development. He emphasizes the importance of social interaction (i.e. all development goes through social interaction) and he states that the elementary mental functions (e.g. memory; sensation) become higher mental functions as a result of social interaction. This would mean that all cognitive skills have social origin.

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Childhood: Developmental Psychology – Lecture 2 (UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM)

There are three definitions of emotion:

  • Emotion refers to a motivational construct characterized by changes in feelings, physiology, cognition and behaviour.
  • Emotion refers to an intense mental state, positive or negative, internally or externally induced, expressed in physiological responses, behaviour, and/or conscious experience.
  • Emotion refers to a psychological state characterized by physiological responses, subjective feelings and cognitions related to these feelings.

Cognition and motivation are two central components of emotions. Emotions can change the environment which alters the probability of experiencing a certain emotion. Emotions consist of three key features:

  1. Emotions arise when an individual attends to a situation and understands it as being relevant to one’s current goals.
  2. Emotions are multifaceted and involve changes in subjective experience (1), behaviour (2) and peripheral physiology (3) (e.g. it gives rise to subjective experience).
  3. Emotions are malleable (i.e. it gives
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Childhood: Developmental Psychology – Lecture 3 (UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM)

Executive functioning has several definitions:

  • It refers to mental processes that support the regulation of goal-directed behaviour.
  • It refers to psychological processes involved in the conscious control of thought and action.
  • It refers to top-down mental processes needed when you have to concentrate and have to pay attention.

It typically involves working memory (1), inhibitory control (2) and mental flexibility (3). Planning (1), decision making (2), judgement (3) and self-perception (4) are results of executive functioning.

The prefrontal cortex is imperative for executive functioning. However, it is likely that mainly the interactions with the prefrontal cortex are essential for executive functioning. According to Luria, the prefrontal cortex consists of interactive functional systems and this involves the integration of subsystems. The subsystems have specific roles but cannot be considered outside of the larger systems. This means

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Childhood: Developmental Psychology – Lecture 1 (UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM)

It is possible that domain-specific mechanisms designed by natural selection to deal with specific aspects of the physical or social environment (e.g. face recognition) evolved, though domain-general mechanisms are also likely to exist as a result of evolution (e.g. executive function). Constraints limit the type of information that can be processed and the way this can be processed. There are three types of constraints on learning:

  1. Architectural constraints (i.e. biology of the brain)
    This refers to the way the brain is organized at birth (e.g. neuronal make-up).
  2. Chronotopic constraints (i.e. maturational constraints)
    This refers to the developmental stage a person is in (e.g. puberty). Brain areas may be sensitive to certain types of learning during a particular timeframe.
  3. Representational constraints
    This refers to hardwired representations in the brain (i.e. innate knowledge) which guides and constraints learning (e.g. basic knowledge of
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Norton & Wolf (2012). Rapid automized naming (RAN) and reading fluency: Implications for understanding and treatment of reading disabilities.” – Article summary

There is a dedicated brain area for acquiring oral language but not for written language (i.e. reading). The reading circuit consists of neural systems that support every level of language and includes visual and orthographic processes, working memory, attention, motor movements and higher-level comprehension and cognition. Each component works smoothly with accuracy and speed as reading develops automaticity (i.e. making reading more automatic).

Fluency (i.e. fluent comprehension) refers to a manner of reading in which all sublexical units, words and connected text and all the perceptual, linguistic and cognitive processes involved in each level are processed accurately and automatically so that sufficient time and resources can be allocated to comprehension and deeper thought. This means that reading needs to be both accurate and automatic.

Rapid automatized naming (RAN) refers to a mini-circuit of the later-developing reading circuitry. RAN tasks include naming a series of

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What can I find on this page? On this page, you can find a summary for all the study materials you need for the developmental specialization of the Psychology bachelor's programme at the University of Amsterdam. There is a link for all the separate courses. The courses have been organized into ...

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