Critical thinking a concise guide by Tracy Bowell & Gary Kemp, fourth edition – Summary chapter 1

The reason answers the ‘why’ question to a statement. Asking for a reason is asking for justification. An argument is a set of propositions of which one is a conclusion and the remainder are premises, intended as support for the conclusion. A proposition is the factual content expressed in an argument.

RECOGNISING ARGUMENTS
Not all attempts to persuade are attempts to persuade by arguments. Attempts to persuade by means of rhetorical devices are also possible. Rhetoric is any verbal or written attempt to persuade someone that does not attempt to give good reasons but attempts to motivate solely through the power of the words used. It relies on the persuasive power of some words (e.g. instil fear using words without good reason). In analysing attempts to persuade, three tasks have to be performed:

1. Identify
   It is important to identify the issue being discussed and whether an argument is being presented.
2. Reconstructing
   The next step is reconstructing the argument so as to express it clearly. This includes putting arguments in the standard form.
3. Evaluating
   The last step is evaluating the argument.

Putting forward an argument is used to either advance an opinion (1) or recommend an action (2). Arguments are attempts to provide reasons that some claim is true. An argument requires more than one claim. If only one claim is used in an attempt to persuade, it is an unsupported claim. The second claim should give support to the first claim. The primary claim which we try to persuade people of is the conclusion. The supporting claims are premises. Indexicals are words of which the meaning changes relative to its context of use or relative to the person to whom it refers.

STANDARD FORM
The standard form of an argument is:

1. A is B
2. B is C
   -------------
3. A is C

There are five steps to reconstruct an argument:

1. Identify the conclusion
2. Identify the premises
3. Number the premises and write them in order
4. Draw in the inference bar
5. Write out the conclusion, placing ‘C’ in front of it

IDENTIFYING CONCLUSIONS AND PREMISES
The context refers to the circumstances in which the passage or speech appeared or took place. Attempts to persuade often include hidden premises, premises that are not being spoken out loud. Any proposition of any topic can be a conclusion. A single text may contain several arguments for several connected conclusions. Indicator words are not parts of the proposition that the argument comprises. They introduce or frame the conclusion and premises. Implicit conclusions are conclusions that are not explicitly being expressed.

Information that puts emphasis on words, is used for rhetoric or has any function besides being a premise or conclusion is extraneous material and should be discarded when identifying the argument.

ARGUMENTS AND EXPLANATIONS
An explanation is used to assert a relation of cause and effect and is different from an argument. A cause can be used in both an argument and an explanation. If a cause is used in an argument, that means that there is a conclusion attached to it.

Example:

1. I enjoy driving fast
2. I should be allowed to do anything I enjoy
   ----------------------------------------------------
3. I should be allowed to drive fast

This is an argument. If the answer to “why are you driving so fast” is merely “because I enjoy it” this could be both an argument or an explanation. The argument often has more far-fetched consequences (you argue for something bigger) than an explanation.

INTERMEDIATE CONCLUSIONS
The conclusion of one argument could serve as a premise of a subsequent argument. Intermediate conclusions are conclusions that are used as a premise for subsequent arguments.