The Academic Skills Bundle
How to Write an Academic Article - A Guide for Advanced Academics
Do you need to write an academic paper? Do you have a lot to tell the world but are you not sure on how to go about doing so structured and well organized? This hero shows how you could structure your text. Enjoy!
Source: http://secondlanguage.blogspot.nl/p/40-paragraphs.html
40 paragraphs
The article will consist of roughly 40 paragraphs. Five of them will provide the introductory and concluding remarks. Five of them will establish a general, human background. Five of them will state the theory that informs the analysis. Five of them will state the method by which the data was gathered. The analysis (or 'results' section) will make roughly three overarching claims (that support the main thesis) in three five-paragraph sections. The implications of the research will be outlined in five paragraphs. These are ball-park figures, not hard and fast rules, but 'knowing' something for academic purposes means being able to articulate yourself in roughly these proportions.
- The First Three Paragraphs
It is difficult to overstate the importance of a good introduction. If your reader does not have a good sense of your argument by the end of the third paragraph (before reading the 600th word), there is something seriously wrong with your paper. Or, perhaps more tellingly, if you are unable to outline your argument straightforwardly and clearly in three paragraphs, you will be unable to write a good paper. When I talk about what a scholarly article is, I always use the opportunity to sketch 'the ideal introduction'. It consists of exactly three paragraphs and no more than six-hundred words.
The first paragraph tells us about the world we are living in. This should obviously be the world that your paper helps us to better understand. It's the world that needs to be understood in precisely the way you understand it. But in this paragraph we (your readers) don't want this understanding, we just want a recognizable description of the world we share with you. Talk to us like we only need to be reminded that this is where we live. It should be familiar to us and based on widely available sources. While you should avoid the letter of a statement like 'We live in a world of ...' or 'Ours is an age of ...', this is very much the spirit of the first paragraph. It's a time for commonplaces; it provides a shared place for you and your readers. In an important sense, you are here describing the practices that your paper is about. And these practices are interesting because there is some problem with them.
The second paragraph tells us about the science that studies this world. It summarizes the body of scholarship that has taken an interest in the problem that is described in the first paragraph. There are two good ways and one common but bad way to structure this paragraph. It can state either a constitutive consensus in the literature or a
.....read more Summary of Critical Thinking: A Concise Guide by Bowell - 5th edition
Summaries per chapter with the 5th edition of Critical Thinking: A Concise Guide by Bowell
Book summary of Critical Thinking - Moore & Parker - 12th edition
- What is critical thinking? - Chapter 1
- What are two ways of reasoning? - Chapter 2
- How do you write a proper text? - Chapter 3
- When is something deemed credible? - Chapter 4
- How does persuasion work? - Chapter 5
- How does relevance work? - Chapter 6
- What are the inductive thinking errors? - Chapter 7
- What are the different types of thinking errors? - Chapter 8
- What deductive arguments are there? - Chapter 9
- What other deductive arguments are there? - Chapter 10
- What is inductive reasoning? - Chapter 11
- How does Moral, Lawful and Ethical reasoning work? - Chapter 12
What is critical thinking? - Chapter 1
[TOC]
What is the importance of critical thinking?
For us humans, there is an importance in critical thinking because it aids us in making good decisions. Often we do not realise how irrational our decisions can be, and this is where critical thinking comes in. Critical thinking basically means thinking about our thinking. We make use of logic and reason to determine whether or not a claim is true, if the reasoning behind it is sound and if we can draw a correlation or connection. It is not necessarily about coming up with claim as much as evaluating the correctness of claims that have been made and try to form a proper conclusion.
To achieve this, we evaluate our thinking on the basis of rationality. When we understand how critical thinking works, we can use this knowledge to be critical in multiple subjects and situations in our daily lives. It is, however, important to understand that criticising other people’s claims and ideas does not mean that we want to attack other people, only that we are trying to find the logic in them. Also, criticising other people in not always a case of critical thinking. People can criticise in the most illogical and unreasonable ways, without considering whether or not their claims are true or their reasoning sound.
When we come to a conclusion at the end of a reasoning, we call that a belief. Beliefs are prepositional and can be either true or false. Beliefs can be compared to a judgement or an opinion. When a belief is stated in a declarative way, that is when we start calling it a claim or statement. Claims are things that we can think critically about.
What are important elements of critical thinking?
Within critical thinking, there are three important parts: claims, issues and arguments. These parts can be analysed once they have been determined in conversation or writing.
Claims
Claims are things that we write or declare, to bring across information. With claims we often deal with statements, opinions or
.....read more Summary of What is this thing called Science by Chalmers: 4th edition
- Does knowledge consist of facts that have come from experience? - Chapter 1
- Is observation a practical intervention? - Chapter 2
- What is the role of experiments in science? - Chapter 3
- What does induction mean? - Chapter 4
- What does falsificationism mean? - Chapter 5
- What does erudite falsificationism mean? - Chapter 6
- What limitations does falsificationism have? - Chapter 7
- What is Kuhn's paradigm? - Chapter 8
- What is the significance of research programs? - Chapter 9
- What does Feyerabend's anarchist science theory entail? - Chapter 10
- What methodological changes are there? - Chapter 11
- What is Bayes' approach? - Chapter 12
- What does the new experimentalism entail? - Chapter 13
- Why should the world obey laws? - Chapter 14
- What does (anti) realism mean? - Chapter 15
- What are Chalmers questions, answers, and conclusions? - Chapter 16
- What is the conclusion about the relationship between philosophy and science? - Chapter 17
Does knowledge consist of facts that have come from experience? - Chapter 1
What is the common sense view of science?
In the first four chapters of this book, the statement "science is derived from facts" is critically analyzed. Throughout the book, this statement's meaning changes slightly. Facts are statements about the world that can be sensed. Facts are neither personal opinions nor speculative ideas. If the world is perceived accurately and without prejudice, the facts that are established are, therefore, a reliable and objective basis for science. Scientific knowledge is reliable and objective if the facts guide conclusive reasoning to laws and theories that make up the basis for scientific knowledge. Before the 17th century, science was primarily based on authorities such as the Bible and Aristotle. Due to people like Galileo, this idea changed in the 17th century. People started to see observation as the basis of science.
Empirists (such as Berkeley, Locke, and Hume) and positivists held the idea that we can see facts as indisputably correct through observation. It follows from this reasoning that knowledge derived from this is objective and reliable. However, it is doubtful that science is based on observable facts. The problem that arises following the statement that science can be deduced from the facts relates to:
- The nature of the 'facts' and the way in which scientists have access to those facts;
- The way in which laws and theories can be derived from the facts, once we know those facts.
Some believe that facts are at the basis of science because they have the following assumptions:
- Facts are directly accessible through the senses to all unbiased observers;
- Facts precede the theory and are
Summaries per chapter with the 1st edition of Writing Psychology Research Reports by Starreveld
Summaries per chapter with the 1st edition of Writing Psychology Research Reports by Starreveld
Glossary of Academic Skills for the Social and Psychological Sciences
Chapter 1: Literature
Literature review A detailed overview of the significant literature available about your chosen topic, providing a discussion and critical evaluation, and using clear argument to contextualise and justify your research. (p. 4)
Peer review The process of evaluating an article by experts to ensure the article meets quality criteria before being accepted for publication. (p. 9)
Textbooks Written specifically for audiences such as students or professionals. Material usually presented in an ordered and relatively accessible form. Often draw on a wide range of sources including peer-reviewed academic journal articles. Useful, particularly as an introductory source to get an overview of your research topic and find out who are the recognised experts. (p. 10)
Peer-reviewed academic journal articles Provide detailed reports of research. Articles written by experts in the field and evaluated by other academics (peer reviewers) to assess quality and suitability. Pay rigorous attention to detail and verification of information. Usually contains extensive list of references. Before publication, have usually been revise in response to comments. This is the most useful type for your literature review. Not all academic journal articles are peer-reviewed. (p. 10)
Non-refereed academic journal articles Articles may provide detailed reports of research. Articles selected by an editor or editorial board with subject knowledge. Relevance and usefulness varies considerably. Beware of possible bias. (p. 10)
Professional and trade journal articles Articles written for members of professional or trade organisations, so related to their needs. Consist of a mix of news items and more detailed accounts of a practical nature. Articles rarely based on research, although some provide summaries of research. Can provide useful insights into practice, although may be biased. Need to be used with considerable caution. (p. 10)
Newspaper articles Articles written for members of public, most newspapers addressing a particular market segment. News presented is filtered dependent on events, priority being given to headline-grabbing stories that are likely to appeal to the readers. Good source of topical events and developments. May contain bias in reporting and coverage. (p. 10)
Conference proceedings Articles consist of selected papers presented at a conference, often published as a book or special edition of a journal. Usually peer-reviewed. Increasingly available online. Sometimes difficult to find. Very useful if the theme of the conference matches your research. (p. 10)
Reports Reports on specific topics written by academics and various organisations, including market research organisations and government departments. Beware of possible bias. May not have gone through same review process as peer-reviewed academic journal articles, but those from established organisations are often of high quality. Often difficult to access or expensive
.....read more What general skills does a social worker need? - Chapter 6
The listening skills can be divided into non-selective (actually impossible not to perform) and selective. The 'non'-selective skills include non-verbal behavior, careful following of the conversation and the use of moments of silence. Selective listening means asking questions, reproducing the information given in one's own words, stimulating precise answers and summarizing. Regulatory skills relate to opening of the conversation, formulation of goals, making agreements about goals, clarifying situation and concluding the conversation. These skills coincide with the phases of problem clarification, problem nuance and problem handling.
How does the social worker start?
First of all, the counselor must make clear what the usual course of events is, so that the client knows what to expect. The counselor must explain what his way of working is. The caregiver cannot do this if the client is completely confused. However, if the client is not particularly confused, the counselor can explain how he works and can make some suggestions. If the client agrees with these proposals, then both can start using them. If the client does not agree with the proposals, a different way of working must be implemented. Because of the structure that the counselor introduces in the beginning, the client will also get more clarity. Some practical issues will also have to be discussed in the beginning; such as the costs and duration of the calls. If both parties know what they can expect, an initial contract can be made.
Which 'non'-selective listening skills are important?
Being able to listen to someone properly is a profession in itself. One must show interest without interrupting too much. One has to listen carefully, but not lose sight of the role of caregiver. The caregiver must also keep his attention focused on his profession. In addition to listening, non-verbal behavior is another important aspect. This behavior has a lot of influence on communication between people. The facial expression is one of the most important forms of non-verbal behavior. For example, a smile can express interest and a sense of consent while a frown will express antipathy and disapproval. Different facial expressions have different meanings at different times. The rescuer can choose to manipulate his facial expression. He must be careful that he does not do this too much. As a result, he may lose his attention and the client may think that he is not being taken seriously. Eye contact also plays a very important role. Lack of eye contact by the health care professional could indicate that they are not involved. Excessive eye contact could lead to a feeling of discomfort. Finally, the body language plays a significant role. A relaxed body posture is the best posture. Gestures that encourage the client such as encouraging nods are also desirable.
A verbal way to pay attention is to follow what the client has to say. The counselor does not try to steer the client, but tries to stick to the client's storyline. In addition, the counselor tries to encourage the client, among other things by giving short verbal
.....read more What is professional skills in pedagogics?
Professional skills in pedagogy encompass the knowledge, abilities, and attitudes that educators and educational professionals need to effectively work with children, young people, and adults. These skills are essential for guiding learning processes, creating safe and stimulating learning environments, and ensuring the optimal development of individuals.
What are the main features of professional skills in pedagogics?
- Scientific Foundation: Skills are based on research in learning, development, and effective teaching practices.
- Reflection and Critical Thinking: Educators can reflect on their practice, critically evaluate their work, and continuously develop their knowledge and skills.
- Communication and Collaboration: Effective communication with students, parents, colleagues, and others is crucial. Collaboration is key to creating optimal learning environments.
- Diversity Awareness: Recognizing and valuing differences, educators can work effectively with learners from diverse backgrounds, cultures, and needs.
- Ethics and Professionalism: Educators act in accordance with ethical principles and professional codes of conduct.
What are the most important sub-areas of professional skills in pedagogics?
- Instructional Science: Teaching skills, lesson planning, assessment methods, learning processes.
- Developmental Psychology: Cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development of children and young people.
- Educational Sciences: Educational styles, parental involvement, managing challenging behaviors.
- Classroom Management: Creating safe and stimulating environments, classroom management techniques.
- Special Education: Supporting learners with special educational needs.
What are the most important concepts of professional skills in pedagogics?
- Learning: How people learn in different ways and how to optimize learning processes.
- Development: The stages of physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development.
- Education: The principles and practices of effective teaching.
- Inclusion: Creating learning environments where all students feel welcome, valued, and challenged.
Who are the most influential figures of professional skills in pedagogics?
- John Dewey: American philosopher and educator, advocated for experiential learning.
- Jean Piaget: Swiss psychologist, known for his theory of cognitive development.
- Lev Vygotsky: Russian psychologist, emphasized the role of social interaction in learning.
- Paulo Freire: Brazilian educator, proponent of critical pedagogy.
- Maria Montessori: Italian physician and educator, developer of the Montessori method.
Why is professional skills in pedagogics important?
Professional skills in pedagogy are crucial for:
- Promoting the optimal development of children, young people, and adults.
- Guiding effective learning processes.
- Creating safe and stimulating learning environments.
- Addressing diversity and inclusion.
- Acting ethically and professionally.
What are applications of professional skills in pedagogics in practice?
Pedagogical professionals with strong skills work in diverse settings, including:
- Schools: Teachers, lecturers, educational support staff.
- Early Childhood Education: Educators, childcare providers.
- Youth Work: Youth workers, youth coaches.
- Special Education: Educational support staff, pedagogues.
- Other Educational Settings: Trainers, instructional designers, curriculum developers.
Stats for students: Simple steps for passing your statistics courses
Theory of statistics
- The first years that you follow statistics, it is often a case of taking knowledge for granted and simply trying to pass the courses. Don't worry if you don't understand everything right away: in later years it will fall into place and you will see the importance of the theory you had to know before.
- The book you need to study may be difficult to understand at first. Be patient: later in your studies, the effort you put in now will pay off.
- Be a Gestalt Scientist! In other words, recognize that the whole of statistics is greater than the sum of its parts. It is very easy to get hung up on nit-picking details and fail to see the forest because of the trees
- Tip: Precise use of language is important in research. Try to reproduce the theory verbatim (ie. learn by heart) where possible. With that, you don't have to understand it yet, you show that you've been working on it, you can't go wrong by using the wrong word and you practice for later reporting of research.
- Tip: Keep study material, handouts, sheets, and other publications from your teacher for future reference.
Formulas of statistics
- The direct relationship between data and results consists of mathematical formulas. These follow their own logic, are written in their own language and can therefore be complex to comprehend.
- If you don't understand the math behind statistics, you don't understand statistics. This does not have to be a problem, because statistics is an applied science from which you can also get excellent results without understanding. None of your teachers will understand all the statistical formulas.
- Please note: you will have to know and understand a number of formulas, so that you can demonstrate that you know the principle of how statistics work. Which formulas you need to know differs from subject to subject and lecturer to lecturer, but in general these are relatively simple formulas that occur frequently and your lecturer will tell you (often several times) that you should know this formula.
- Tip: if you want to recognize statistical symbols you can use: Recognizing commonly used statistical symbols
- Tip: have fun with LaTeX! LaTeX code gives us a simple way to write out mathematical formulas and make them look professional. Play with LaTeX. Wit that, you can include used formulas in your own papers and you learn to understand how a formula is built up – which greatly benefits your understanding and remembering that formula. See also (in Dutch): How to create formulas like a pro on JoHo WorldSupporter?
- Tip: Are you interested in a career in sciences or programming? Then take your formulas seriously and go through them again after your course.
Practice of statistics
Selecting data
- Your teacher will regularly use a dataset for lessons during the first years of your studying. It is instructive (and can be a lot of fun) to set up your own research for once with real data that is also used by other researchers.
- Tip: scientific articles often indicate which datasets have been used for the research. There is a good chance that those datasets are valid. Sometimes there are also studies that determine which datasets are more valid for the topic you want to study than others. Make use of datasets other researchers point out.
- Tip: Do you want an interesting research result? You can use the same method and question, but use an alternative dataset, and/or alternative variables, and/or alternative location, and/or alternative time span. This allows you to validate or falsify the results of earlier research.
- Tip: for datasets you can look at Discovering datasets for statistical research
Operationalize
- For the operationalization, it is usually sufficient to indicate the following three things:
- What is the concept you want to study?
- Which variable does that concept represent?
- Which indicators do you select for those variables?
- It is smart to argue that a variable is valid, or why you choose that indicator.
- For example, if you want to know whether someone is currently a father or mother (concept), you can search the variables for how many children the respondent has (variable) and then select on the indicators greater than 0, or is not 0 (indicators). Where possible, use the terms 'concept', 'variable', 'indicator' and 'valid' in your communication. For example, as follows: “The variable [variable name] is a valid measure of the concept [concept name] (if applicable: source). The value [description of the value] is an indicator of [what you want to measure].” (ie.: The variable "Number of children" is a valid measure of the concept of parenthood. A value greater than 0 is an indicator of whether someone is currently a father or mother.)
Running analyses and drawing conclusions
- The choice of your analyses depends, among other things, on what your research goal is, which methods are often used in the existing literature, and practical issues and limitations.
- The more you learn, the more independently you can choose research methods that suit your research goal. In the beginning, follow the lecturer – at the end of your studies you will have a toolbox with which you can vary in your research yourself.
- Try to link up as much as possible with research methods that are used in the existing literature, because otherwise you could be comparing apples with oranges. Deviating can sometimes lead to interesting results, but discuss this with your teacher first.
- For as long as you need, keep a step-by-step plan at hand on how you can best run your analysis and achieve results. For every analysis you run, there is a step-by-step explanation of how to perform it; if you do not find it in your study literature, it can often be found quickly on the internet.
- Tip: Practice a lot with statistics, so that you can show results quickly. You cannot learn statistics by just reading about it.
- Tip: The measurement level of the variables you use (ratio, interval, ordinal, nominal) largely determines the research method you can use. Show your audience that you recognize this.
- Tip: conclusions from statistical analyses will never be certain, but at the most likely. There is usually a standard formulation for each research method with which you can express the conclusions from that analysis and at the same time indicate that it is not certain. Use that standard wording when communicating about results from your analysis.
- Tip: see explanation for various analyses: Introduction to statistics
De Academische Vaardigheden Bundel
Bijdragen en blogs over academische vaardigheden
- 381 reads
Add new contribution