Summary of Psychology by Gray and Bjorkland - 8th edition
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A potential psychological disorder must be evaluated in four aspects:
A person must have clinically significant scores on all these aspects for something to be a psychological disorder. There are three demands to be made to a condition before being labelled a psychological disorder:
The reliability of a diagnostic system refers to the extent to which different diagnosticians, al trained in the use of the system, reach the same conclusion when they independently diagnose the same individuals. The validity of a diagnostic system is an index of the extent to which the categories it identifies are useful and meaningful in clinicians. A label implying a psychological disorder has the potential to interfere with the person’s ability to cope with his or her environment through several means:
The medical student’s disease is characterised by a strong tendency to relate personally to and to find in oneself, the symptoms of any disease or disorder described in a textbook. There are several cultural related psychological disorders, such as anorexia nervosa. This used to be a psychological disorder that was only known in western cultures, but because of the globalisation, it happens in other cultures too. Culture does not only affect the types of behaviours and syndromes that people manifest but also affects clinician’s decisions about what to label as disorders, for example, homosexuality used to be labelled as a disorder. There are constantly new disorders being added, one of those is ADHD, which has three varieties:
One of the most important causes of psychological disorders is brain deficit and the brain itself. Down Syndrome is a disorder that is present at birth and is caused by an error in meiosis, which results in an extra chromosome. Alzheimer’s disease is found primarily in older adults. The disorder is characterised psychologically by a progressive deterioration in all person’s cognitive abilities, followed by deterioration in the brain’s control of bodily functions. The disorder is caused by the presence of amyloid plaques, deposits of a particular protein, called beta-amyloid. There is a difference between chronic disorders and episodic disorders, disorders of which the effects are reversible.
Environmental assaults to the brain, the effects of learning and genes can contribute to the predisposition for episodic disorders. There are three types of causes of psychological disorders:
Sex differences in psychological disorders may arise from a number of causes, including the following:
Anxiety disorders are disorders in which fear or anxiety is the most prominent disturbance. The major anxiety disorders are generalized anxiety disorder, phobias and panic disorders. Genetic differences play a considerable role in the predisposition for all these disorders.
People with generalized anxiety disorder worry continuously, about multiple issues, and they experience muscle tension, irritability, and difficulty in sleeping. In order to be diagnosed with generalized anxiety disorder, the life-disrupting worry must occur on more days than not for at least six months and must occur independently of other diagnosable disorders. People with generalized anxiety disorder also have heightened attention to potential threat, called hypervigilance.
A phobia is an intense, irrational fear, that is very clearly related to a particular object or event. Learning plays a role in the causation of phobias. People are genetically prepared to be afraid of some things and not of others. This is why phobias of spiders or snakes are more common than phobias of pigeons. People with phobias tend to avoid the thing they are afraid of and this can perpetuate the disorder.
Panic is a feeling of helpless terror. Panic attacks arise at random moments and cannot be avoided. It is unrelated to a specific object or event. They usually last several minutes. To be diagnosed with a panic disorder, a person must have experienced recurrent unexpected attack, at least one of which is followed by one month of debilitating worry about having another attack or by life-constraining changes in behaviour. A panic disorder often manifests itself after a major life event. A perpetuating cause of the panic disorder is a learned tendency to interpret physiological arousal as panic. Agoraphobia is a fear of public places.
An obsession is a disturbing thought that intrudes repeatedly on a person’s consciousness even though the person recognizes it as irrational. A compulsion is an action following an obsession. People with OCD are people for whom such thoughts and actions are severe, prolonged and disruptive of normal life. To be diagnosed with OCD, the thoughts must consume more than one hour a day and must seriously interfere with work or social relationships. Brain damage can be a predisposing cause of OCD. It may be related to damage to the basal ganglia, portions of the frontal lobe and parts of the underlying limbic system. People with OCD may also have problems with their executive functions.
There are five types of stress disorders:
PTSD is characterized by three major symptoms:
People with PTSD show deficits in a number of cognitive abilities, including speed of information processing, working memory, verbal learning and memory, inhibitory control, episodic memory and imagining future events. Genetic predisposition repeated exposures to traumatic events and inadequate social support increase the risk for the disorder.
There are two main categories of mood disorders: depressive disorders and bipolar and related disorders. Depression is characterized primarily by prolonged sadness, self-lame, a sense of worthlessness and absence of pleasure. The total amount of sleep, appetite can also be a symptom, as well as agitated and retarded motor symptoms. Retarded motor symptoms include slower speech and slowed body movements. Agitated symptoms include repetitive, aimless movements. There are two types of depression:
Generalized anxiety disorder and depression are related and are linked to the same genes. The hopelessness theory states that depression results from a pattern of thinking about negative events that have three characteristics:
People with depression often use the thinking style rumination, which involves repetitively and passively focusing on symptoms of distress and the possible causes and consequences of these symptoms. Rumination does not lead to problem-solving but focusses on one’s problems and negative feelings. A major life event often triggers depression. Depression may be caused by the shrinking of the hippocampus and parts of the prefrontal cortex, which is reversible. Antidepressants contain norepinephrine and serotine and this stimulates the growth of these two brain areas, thus explaining why antidepressants help, but only after prolonged use.
Major depression and dysthymia are sometimes called unipolar disorders because they are characterized by mood changes in only one direction. Bipolar disorders are characterized by mood swings in both directions. There are two varieties of bipolar disorders:
The predisposition for bipolar disorders is strongly heritable. Bipolar disorders can usually be controlled with doses of lithium.
People with schizophrenia have difficulty distinguishing reality from imagination. To be diagnosed with schizophrenia, an individual must manifest a serious decline in the ability to work, care for himself and connect socially in others. The person must also manifest, for at least one month, two or more of the following five categories of symptoms:
People with schizophrenia appear to suffer from deficits in essentially all the basic processes of attention and memory. Schizophrenia may involve unusual patterns of dopamine activity. Overactivity of dopamine in some part of the brain, such as the basal ganglia, may promote the positive symptoms and underactivity of dopamine in the prefrontal cortex may promote the negative symptoms. Glutamate might also play a role in schizophrenia. People with schizophrenia have larger cerebral ventricles, fluid-filled spaces in the brain. Schizophrenia may also occur because of the decline in grey matter in the brain.
The concordance for the disorder is the percentage of relatives of someone with the disorder have the disorder as well. The more closely related someone is to someone with schizophrenia, the greater the change that that person will develop schizophrenia as well. Prenatal variables, such as malnutrition, can influence the likelihood of developing schizophrenia. There are no cultural differences in the occurrence of schizophrenia, but there are differences in the recovery rate. People with schizophrenia in developing countries tend to recover more often.
A personality disorder is an enduring pattern of behaviour, thoughts and emotions that impairs a person´s sense of self, goals and capacity for empathy and-or intimacy. There are three clusters of personality disorders. Cluster A, “odd” personality disorders:
Cluster B, “dramatic” personality disorders:
Cluster C, “Anxious” personality disorders:
This bundle contains everything you need to know for the second interim exam of Introduction to Psychology for the University of Amsterdam. It uses the book "Psychology by P. Gray and D. F., Bjorkland (eight edition)". The bundle contains the following chapters:
- 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16.
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This bundle describes a summary of the book "Psychology by P. Gray and D. F., Bjorkland (eight edition)". The following chapters are used:
- 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16.
This bundle contains everything you need to know for the second interim exam of Introduction to Psychology for the University of Amsterdam. It uses the book "Psychology by P. Gray and D. F., Bjorkland (eight edition)". The bundle contains the following chapters:
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