What is this chapter about?

This chapter is about social groups. A group is a collection of people who interact with each other, share common goals, and have a sense of unity or belonging.

Groups can be formal or informal. You can think of organizations or friendgroups. Groups can vary in size, from dyads (groups of two people) to large organizations. Groups can be characterized by their norms or shared expectations for behaviour, and by the roles or expected behaviours for individuals within the group.

This chapter discusses the various ways in which individuals can be influenced by others in social groups, by social norms, group cohesiveness and group socialization. The chapter covers conformity, compliance, and obedience. It lastly explains group structures and why people join groups.

What are group effects on individual behaviour?

Groups have an impact on individual behaviour. These are some of the most important group effects on individual performance:

• Social facilitation is the tendency for people to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others, but worse on complex tasks. The idea is that the presence of others can create arousal or anxiety, which can enhance performance on tasks that are well-practiced or familiar, like simple tasks, but hinder performance on tasks that are less familiar or more complex. This effect has been observed in a range of settings, from sports to academic testing.

• Social loafing is the tendency for people to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone. The idea is that when people are part of a group, they may feel that their individual efforts don't matter as much and may thus be less motivated to work hard. This effect is more likely to occur when people feel that their individual contributions are not easily identifiable or when they feel that others in the group are not putting in much effort either.

• Deindividuation occurs when people lose their sense of individual identity and become more susceptible to the norms of the group. This can happen in situations where people feel anonymous, where there is a sense of shared identity among group members, or where there is a lack of clear social norms or rules. This can happen when someone is for example in uniform (anonymity), at a sporting event (shared identity) or on an online platform (lack of clear social norms). In such situations, people may feel less accountable for their actions and more likely to conform to the group's behaviour or values. This can sometimes lead to behaviours that individuals might not engage in otherwise, such as vandalism or aggression.

What is group cohesiveness?

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree to which group members are attracted to each other and share a sense of unity. Cohesive groups tend to be more tightly knit, with members feeling a stronger sense of belonging and attachment to the group. This can lead to several positive outcomes, including higher levels of member satisfaction, commitment, and cooperation. When group members feel more connected to each other, they are more likely to work together effectively and achieve common goals.

However, cohesive groups can also be prone to certain negative tendencies. One such phenomenon is groupthink, which occurs when group members prioritize group harmony and consensus over critical thinking and independent decision-making. Groupthink can lead to poor decision-making, as members may fail to consider all available options or challenge each other's ideas in a constructive way.

Another negative tendency associated with cohesive groups is the out-group bias. This refers to the tendency to view outsiders or members of other groups as less favorable than members of one's own group. In highly cohesive groups, members may feel a strong sense of loyalty and identity with the group, which can lead to an "us against them" mentality. This can result in prejudice or discrimination against outsiders and can hinder effective collaboration with other groups.

What is group socialization?

Group socialization refers to the process by which individuals learn the norms and roles of a group. When people join a new group, they must learn the expectations and behaviours that are considered acceptable within that group. This process can involve both explicit instruction (such as formal training sessions or orientation meetings) and observation of the behaviours of other group members.

In addition to learning the explicit rules and norms of the group, socialization can also involve a period of "breaking in" or adjustment to the group's culture. This may include learning to fit in with the group's social dynamics, such as its communication patterns, decision-making processes, and power structures. Group socialization can also involve developing relationships with other group members and building a sense of trust and cohesion.

The process of socialization can have important implications for group dynamics and individual behaviour. For example, group members who are socialized to be highly committed to the group's goals and values may be more likely to work together effectively and achieve common objectives. Conversely, individuals who are poorly socialized or who do not feel a strong sense of connection to the group may be more likely to engage in deviant or disruptive behaviour. Overall, group socialization plays a critical role in shaping the culture and functioning of groups, and it is critical to understand group socialization in order to understand any group.

What are norms within a group?

In any group, there will be social norms. Norms refer to shared expectations for behaviour within a group. Norms can be formal, such as rules and laws, or informal, such as customs and traditions. They guide behaviour by setting expectations for how individuals should act within the group, and they help to establish a shared understanding of what is considered appropriate or acceptable behaviour.

Norms can vary in how strict they are and in if and how they are enforced. Some norms may be highly formalized and strictly enforced, while others may be more informal and loosely enforced. Norms can also vary in their degree of flexibility or adaptability, with some groups being more open to change or innovation than others.

Norms can have both positive and negative effects on group functioning. Positive norms can promote cooperation, harmony, and mutual support among group members. They can also help to establish a sense of shared identity and purpose. But norms can also promote discrimination and the negative effects discussed in the section on cohesiveness of the group. This is because there is a direct link between group norms and the cohesiveness of the group: the more strict the rules are, the more cohesive a group will be and this also goes the other way. With more cohesiveness and stricter rules, there may be greater positive impacts of a group but also greater risks.

How are groups structured?

All groups are structured in their own wat, but there is some information about the structure of groups that is important for understanding the dynamics of any group. By understanding the patterns of relationships and power within the group, it is possible to identify potential issues and develop strategies for improving communication, decision-making, and resource distribution. Roughly, groups can be divided into hierarchical groups and egalitarian groups, even though most groups can be best seen as a mix of the two structures. Hierarchical group structures are characterized by a clear division of power and authority among group members. Egalitarian group structures are characterized by a more equal distribution of power and authority among group members. Hierarchical structures can provide clear leadership and direction, with a focus on efficiency and productivity. Egalitarian structures, on the other hand, can foster creativity, innovation, and a sense of shared ownership and responsibility among all members. The type of structure that is most appropriate for a given group will depend on a variety of factors, including the group's size, goals, culture, and context.

One common aspect of group structure is the presence of leaders and followers. In hierarchical structures, there is a clear distinction between those in positions of power and those who are subordinate to them. Leaders have greater authority and control over decision-making, while followers are expected to follow instructions and carry out tasks as directed. In contrast, in egalitarian structures, there is a more equal distribution of power and influence among members, and decisions may be made through consensus or democratic processes.

Group structure can have a significant impact on communication patterns within the group. In hierarchical structures, communication often flows from the top down, with leaders providing instructions and feedback to their subordinates. This can lead to limited opportunities for feedback and input from lower-level members. In contrast, in egalitarian structures, communication is often more open and inclusive, with members encouraged to share their ideas and perspectives.

Group structure can also impact decision-making processes within the group. In hierarchical structures, decisions are often made by those in positions of authority, and lower-level members may have little input into the decision-making process. In contrast, in egalitarian structures, decisions may be made through collaborative processes that involve all members of the group.

Finally, group structure can affect the distribution of power and resources within the group. In hierarchical structures, those in positions of authority often have greater access to resources and may receive more benefits and rewards than lower-level members. In contrast, in egalitarian structures, resources and benefits are typically distributed more equally among all members of the group.

Why do people join groups?

People join groups for a variety of reasons that can be broadly categorized into instrumental, expressive, and cognitive reasons.

Instrumental reasons refer to the practical benefits that individuals can gain by joining a group, such as achieving specific goals or obtaining resources that they might not be able to obtain on their own. For example, people may join a professional organization to advance their careers or a volunteer group to make a positive impact on their community.

Expressive reasons refer to the social and emotional benefits that individuals can gain by being part of a group, such as fulfilling social needs or gaining a sense of identity. For example, people may join a sports team to meet new people and feel a sense of belonging or a social club to pursue a shared interest or hobby with others.

Cognitive reasons refer to the desire to seek information, knowledge, or validation by joining a group. For example, people may join a support group to learn more about a particular issue or to connect with others who share similar experiences.

The motives for joining a group can have a significant impact on the individual's level of commitment, satisfaction, and participation in the group. For example, individuals who join a group primarily for instrumental reasons may be more focused on achieving specific goals and may be less likely to continue participating in the group once those goals have been achieved. In contrast, individuals who join a group for expressive reasons may be more likely to remain committed to the group over time, as they derive social and emotional benefits from their involvement. Finally, individuals who join a group for cognitive reasons may be more focused on learning and information-seeking and may be less likely to participate in group activities that do not serve this purpose.