Adolescence and emerging adulthood: A cultural approach by Jeffrey Arnett and Malcolm Hughes (sixth edition) – Chapter 6 summary

Self-conception refers to the notion of what kind of person one is. Self-esteem refers to the capacity to evaluate one’s fundamental worth as a person. Identity refers to one’s perception of their capacity and characteristics and how this fit into the opportunities available to them. Self-reflection increases in adolescence as a result of normal cognitive development but culture has a profound influence on how people experience this change.

People’s self-conceptions change with age. Self-conceptions become more abstract and more complex in adolescence. Self-conceptions become more trait-focused and the traits become more abstract (e.g. being outgoing).

There is a cultural difference between collectivistic (i.e. interdependent self) and individualistic (i.e. independent self) cultures with regard to self-conception. In collectivistic cultures, the self is defined by social relationships.

The ideal self refers to the person the adolescent would like to be. The feared self refers to the person the adolescent imagines it is possible to become but dreads becoming. Possible selves only exist as abstractions. The discrepancy between the ideal and the actual self can lead to problems (e.g. feelings of depression). However, awareness of actual and possible selves can also provide adolescents with motivation to strive toward their ideal self. Delinquent adolescents were less likely to have a clear ideal self. The false self refers to a self that adolescents present to others while realizing that it does not represent what they are actually thinking and feeling.

Adolescents need to learn how to understand and manage their emotions, though adolescence is characterized by heightened emotions. Brain development may lead to adolescents’ emotionality. There is low activity in the frontal lobes and high activity in the amygdala during emotional processing while the opposite is true for adults. Adolescents’ new and increased capacity for abstract thought as well as interpretation of new peer situations leads to a differential emotional response. Adolescents report less positive emotions compared to childhood.

According to Gilligan, boys learn to assert their opinions during adolescence while girls become insecure and lose their ‘voice’. This is the result of differences in emotional responses to social relationships with girls being more sensitive to nuance. The discrepancy between the desires of the culture for both sexes can lead to this and in its extreme, lead to heightened psychopathology rates. However, the studies are methodologically weak and self-esteem declines for both girls and boys in adolescence.

Adolescents are able to engage in frequent self-reflection because they are often by themselves. While their mood tends to be lower when they are alone (e.g. in their bedroom), their mood tends to rise after a period of being alone. This time may thus be used for self-reflection and mood management. Being alone can be constructive as long as the adolescent is not alone too often.

Social loneliness refers to the perception of lacking a sufficient number of social contacts and relationships. Emotional loneliness refers to the perception of lacking closeness and intimacy in social relationships. Both types of loneliness are more common in adolescence and emerging adulthood. Emerging adulthood may be especially lonely due to the increases in independence without companionship.

In Erikson’s theory of human development, each period of life is characterized by a distinctive developmental issue or crisis (e.g. trust vs. mistrust). Each crisis holds the potential for a healthy and an unhealthy path. Adolescence face the crisis of identity versus identity confusion. The healthy path includes establishing a clear and definitive sense of who you are and how you fit into the world. The unhealthy path includes identity confusion which is a failure to form a stable and secure identity. Identity formation requires reflection and identity is mostly formed in the areas of love, work and ideology. While identity is always relevant throughout development, identity issues are most prominent in adolescence.

According to Erikson, it is important to establish a clear identity in adolescence as a basis for initial commitments in adult life and as a foundation for later stages of development. Developing via the healthy path provides a stable foundation for the next stage of development.

Identifications refer to relationships formed with others in which love for another person leads one to want to be like that person. According to Erikson, identity is formed partly in the identifications an adolescence has accumulated in childhood (i.e. adolescents model themselves after others). The most important identifications are combined and integrated with individual characteristics.

Psychosocial moratorium refers to a period during adolescence when adult responsibilities are postponed and young people try on various selves. This is an aspect of identity formation. The psychosocial moratorium is only present in societies where individual choice is supported. A negative identity refers to an identity which the adolescent views as most undesirable or dangerous.

There are four identity statuses according to the identity status model:

1. Achievement (i.e. commitment and exploration)
2. Moratorium (i.e. exploration but no commitment)
3. Foreclosure (i.e. commitment but no exploration)
4. Diffusion (i.e. no commitment and no exploration)

Identity status is related to other aspects of development with moratorium and achievement being related to more favourable developmental outcomes. Identity formation rarely concludes in adolescence.

There are three critiques to Erikson’s theory:

1. Identity status model is flawed
   This holds that identity is not stable and unitary. Furthermore, identity development does not proceed through a predictable set of stages. This critique states that there is a postmodern identity, which refers to a conception of identity as complex and as highly variable across contexts and time.
2. Gender and identity
   This holds that Erikson’s theory represents the male goal of striving or an independent identity while seeing girls’ emphasis on relationships with others as a less desirable deviation from normal development. While Erikson’s theory states that there are gender differences in identity and intimacy development, this is most likely not the case.
3. Culture and identity
   This holds that Erikson’s theory specifically focuses on Western culture (e.g. moratorium is not possible in all countries and not all cultures allow for identity exploration).

Adolescents who are part of an ethnic minority become more aware of prejudices and stereotypes due to the increases in cognitive capacity. Having to confront these issues may make identity development more complex compared to those who are part of the majority culture. Ethnic identity is more salient when one is part of a minority.

Emerging adulthood may be especially important for developing ethnic identity because emerging adults often enter new contexts that may involve greater contact with people outside their ethnic group. Having a well-defined ethnic identity plays a positive role in adolescents’ lives.