Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) is an effective treatment for alleviating PTSD symptoms. In EMDR, the patient recalls traumatic memories while simultaneously making horizontal eye movements. There are three hypotheses as to why and how EMDR works:

1. EMDR works by recalling aversive memories and eye movements are not necessary
   This states that prolonged exposure as a result of the traumatic memories leads to the positive results of EMDR (e.g. imaginal exposure therapy). However, research shows that eye movements do have an additive effect.
2. EMDR works by stimulating “interhemispheric communication”
   This states that eye movements increase communication between left and right brain hemispheres. This is believed to enhance the ability to remember an aversive event while not being negatively aroused. This indicates that the stimulus does not matter as long as it is left and right. However, vertical eye movements are also

There is no difference between people with a high and a low self-esteem with regards to the desire for connection. However, compared to people with a high self-esteem, people with a low self-esteem have several characteristics.

• They feel lonelier.
• They have less satisfying and stable relationships.
• They are more shy.
• They are more socially anxious.
• They are more introverted.

One essential part of the development of intimacy is self-disclosure. However, people with a low self-esteem may be self-protective. They focus on avoiding revealing their flaws rather than focusing on their good qualities. This orientation guides a lot of the behaviours of people with low self-esteem and leads them to self-disclose less. Self-disclosure is positively associated with likability (1), relationship quality (2) and relationship stability (2).

Both people with a low and high self-esteem view Facebook as offering opportunities to

Both Bowlby’s and Ainsworth’s attachment theory are used to conceptualize close interpersonal relationships. This theory states that people have core systems (i.e. attachments) and this is modifiable by experience.

Bowlby’s attachment theory states that humans have an innate attachment behavioural system. This motivates them to seek proximity to significant others (i.e. attachment figures). The main goal is to maintain adequate protection and support. Though the attachment system remains active over a lifespan, people become increasingly able to gain comfort from internal representations of attachment figures (i.e. attachment figure does not have to be physically present).

Attachment working models refer to the mental presentation of the self and others. These working models include procedural knowledge about how social interactions unfold and how one can best handle stress and distress;

1. Secure-base script (secure attachment)
   This refers to a positive relational if-then script (e.g.

There was no clear recognition of the chronic, long-term post-traumatic stress reactions before the diagnosis of PTSD. The amygdala (1), hippocampus (2) and HPA axis (3) are imperative in the development and maintenance of PTSD. The hippocampus and amygdala are involved in the registration of dangerous events and the formation of memories about this.

Memories formed under emotionally arousing situations behave differently from those that are not. Memory formation can be altered by the blocking effects of adrenalin. This means that the degree of arousal during or directly after a traumatic event has fundamental importance for the development of intrusive and hyperarousal symptoms.

Acute stress disorder (ASD) is a good predictor of PTSD but does not necessarily lead to the development of PTSD. The prevalence of PTSD is higher for women and minority groups, potentially due to their high exposure to traumatic events (e.g. sexual