Developmental dyscalculia (DD) refers to a learning disorder which specifically affects the ability to acquire school-level arithmetic skills. It occurs when a child has a substantially lower mathematical ability compared to what can be expected for the person’s chronological age (1), measured intelligence (2) and age-appropriate education (3). The prevalence is 3% to 6%. It is often comorbid with other learning difficulties (e.g. dyslexia; ADHD).

There is a lot of heterogeneity within DD. This maybe due to variation across studies in criteria used to identify mathematical difficulties (e.g. discrepancy criteria vs. percentile cut-off points). This may include individuals whose math deficits stem from exogeneous sources (e.g. poor teaching quality) rather than those whose math deficits result from a learning disorder. Another reason is that math skills are heterogeneous and vulnerable to disruption from a wide range of endogenous and exogenous sources, leading to heterogeneity in DD.

EndeavorRX refers to a videogame-delivered cognitive training treatment intended to improve neurocognitive deficits associated with ADHD. Children play the game for 30 minutes or more every day for several weeks. The idea is that when core cognitive deficits are reduced, the problems that are associated with these deficits will also reduce. This treatment has some evidence for near-transfer but there is very limited evidence for far transfer of skills.

The hyperactive subtype of ADHD is often attributed to frontrostriatal dysfunction. It projects from the striatum to the prefrontal cortex and is involved in reward-based learning. The striatum may be under-responsive to anticipated rewards in people with the hyperactive subtype. They require larger and more immediate rewards and they habituate to rewards more quickly. In this subtype, inattention may be a secondary symptom due to low motivation as a result of frontoparietal and temporal lobe dysfunction. Next

Toddler interventions for ASD are often delivered in a naturalistic and interactive social context (e.g. play). It typically involves child-directed teaching strategies (e.g. child-preferred materials). Naturalistic developmental behavioural interventions (NDBI) refer to interventions that employ a naturalistic and interactive social context and involve child-directed teaching strategies.

Learning is facilitated by an affective exchange between the child and the therapist. However, children with autism have deficits in affective sharing and social motivation. This thus needs to be promoted for children with autism for interventions to be effective.

NDBIs make use of a constructivist approach where children’s learning experiences are designed to actively engage attention (1), help them connect new experiences with existing knowledge (2), teach within developmental sequences (3) and systematically increase the complexity of learning experiences (4). Child initiative and spontaneity are fostered and rewarded. Everyday routines are a rich learning context for children and

Social anxiety disorder (SAD) refers to a persistent, intense fear of social situations in which the individual may be negatively evaluated by others. This fear must occur in peer settings and not just in adult settings for children. The prevalence rate is 10% in adolescence and first incidence after the age of 21 is very low.

Not treating SAD is associated with impairments in interpersonal functioning (1), loneliness (2), school refusal (3), drop-out (4), lower educational level (5), subsequent anxiety (6), subsequent depressive disorders (7) and subsequent substance use disorders (8). It typically persists into adulthood when it is left untreated.

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is the most efficacious treatment for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. About 50-70% of the children with an anxiety disorder are free of it after treatment. CBT for childhood anxiety disorders typically consists of skill-building (1), psychoeducation (2),