Studiegids voor artikelsamenvattingen bij Gezinspedagogiek aan de Universiteit Leiden

Which aspects of system theory underlie the McMaster model of family functioning?

• Parts of the family are related to each other.
• One part of the family cannot be understood in isolation from the rest of the system.
• Family functioning is more than just the sum of the parts.
• Transactional patterns of the family system are involved in shaping the behavior of family members.
• A family’s structure and organization are important in determining the behavior of family members.

Which types of tasks do families deal with in carrying out functions?

• Basic tasks are instrumental in nature (fundamental issues such as food provision and shelter).
• Developmental tasks encompass family issues that arise with the natural processes of growth. Two sets are identified: individual developmental stages (infancy, childhood, adolescence, etc.) and family stages (marriage, pregnancy, etc.).
• Hazardous tasks include the crises that arise in association with illness, loss of income, accidents, etc.

Which dimensions are investigated by the McMaster model of family functioning?

The McMaster model of family functioning defines dimensions, but also recognizes that there may be overlap and interaction between them. The dimensions are:

• Problem solving refers to the family’s ability to resolve problems to a level that maintains effective family functioning.
• Family roles look at the repetitive patterns of behavior by which individuals fulfill family functions.
• Communication refers to how the family exchanges information.
• Affective responsiveness is the ability to respond to a range of stimuli with appropriate quality and quantity of feelings.
• Affective involvement focuses on how much and in what way family members show an interest and invest themselves in each other.
• Behavior control looks at the pattern the family adopts for handling behavior in three specific situations (they will be further explained below).

How does the McMaster model of family functioning define a ¨family problem¨?

A family problem is seen as an issue that threatens the integrity and functional capacity of the family. Some families have ongoing difficulties that don’t threaten the integrity or function of the family. Those difficulties are not considered family problems. Problems are divided into instrumental and affective problems. Instrumental problems are the mechanical problems of everyday life (e.g. financing, housing). Affective problems are related to feelings. Affective problems can be seen on their own, whereas instrumental problems are almost always coupled with affective problems.

What does the McMaster model of family functioning predict with regards to family problems and family functioning?

Families who have difficulty in resolving both instrumental and affective problems function least effectively. Families who resolve both instrumental and affective problems function most effectively.

What are the clinical stages that families in treatment go through when using the McMaster model of family functioning?

The model offers a sequence of stages that can be followed in treatment:

1. Identification of the problem (What is the problem? Is the family identifying the problem correctly or are they displacing the real problem?).
2. Communication of the problem to appropriate resources within or outside of the family.
3. Development of alternative action plans (How do the alternative action plans vary with the nature of the problem?).
4. Decision regarding a suitable action (Is the family making a decision? Are they displacing? Are they considering the alternative action plans?).
5. The family has decided on a suitable course of action. This could be not doing anything at all, acting in a limited way, or carrying out all the aspects of the action.
6. Monitoring that action which is taken.
7. Evaluation of the success of the action (Are the family members content with the results? What did they learn?).

Which four communication styles are identified by the McMaster model of family functioning?

Communication is assessed along two continua, namely clear versus masked continuum (the clarity with which the content of the information is exchanged) and direct versus indirect continuum (does the message go to the person for whom it is intended). Based on these two continua, four styles of communication can be distinguished:

• Clear and direct communication
• Clear and indirect communication
• Masked and direct communication
• Masked and indirect communication

The model states that the more masked and indirect the overall family communication pattern is, the more ineffective the family’s functioning is.

Which are the different family functions according to the McMaster model of family functioning?

The model breaks the functions down into necessary family functions and other family functions. Necessary family functions are those that the family will have to address repeatedly if they are to function well and can be made up of instrumental, affective or mixed types. Other family functions are those that are not necessary for effective family functioning, but just come up in family’s lives.

Which necessary family functions are identified by the McMaster model of family functioning?

The model identifies five necessary family functions:

• Provision of resources
• Nurturance and support
• Sexual gratification of marital partners
• Life skills development
• Systems management and maintenance

What is role allocation?

Role allocation incorporates the concepts of the assignment of responsibilities for family functions, whether such allocations are appropriate, whether the allocation process is carried out explicitly or implicitly, by open free discussion or by dictum. It looks at if the allocated responsibilities are appropriately spread and shared among the family members, or whether a family member is being overburdened.

What is role accountability?

Role accountability refers to the process of a family member being made accountable for the responsibilities which he has been allocated. This accountability reinforces the commitment to and the effectiveness of the role being done.

What is affective responsiveness?

Affective responsiveness refers to the ability to respond to a range of stimuli with appropriate quality and quantity of feelings. The responses are divided into welfare feelings and emergency feelings. Welfare feelings are responses such as love, happiness and joy. Emergency feelings are responses such as fear, sadness, anger and depression. Effective family functioning is characterized by a wide range of responses and these families are more capable of giving appropriate responses in terms of quantity and quality.

What is affective involvement?

Affective involvement is the degree to which the family shows interest in and values the activities and interests of family members. There is a continuum of possible involvement: lack of involvement, involvement devoid of feelings, narcissistic involvement, empathic involvement, over-involvement, symbiotic involvement.

What is behavior control?

Behavior control looks at the patterns the family adopts for handling behavior in three specific situations:

• Physically dangerous situations.
• Situations involving the meeting and expressing of psychobiological needs and drives.
• Situations involving socializing behavior both inside and outside the family.

Families develop a standard of acceptable behavior for those situations. The standard and latitude for acceptable behavior determines the style of behavior control.

Which behavior control styles are identified?

Four styles of behavior control are identified:

• Rigid behavior control. This pattern is seen in situations where the rule involves a very constricted and narrow standard that allows little room for negotiation and change despite the context of the situation.
• Flexible behavior control. This involves a reasonable standard and amount of flexibility given the context.
• Laissez-faire behavior control. This refers to situations where the standard of rule is not an issue because total latitude is allowed and anything goes.
• Chaotic behavior control. In this pattern families shift in a random way from rigid to flexible to laissez-faire and family members are unaware which standard and latitude will be applied at any given time.

The model views flexible behavior control as the most effective behavior control style and chaotic behavior control as the least.

What is the environment of evolutionary adaptedness?

The environment of evolutionary adaptedness (EEA) is the ancestral environment to which a species is adapted. It is the set of selection pressures that shaped an adaptation. For a long time scientists (such as John Bowlby) believed that the standard EEA was characterized by mother-father child rearing, where the mother was the primary and exclusive caretaker.

What is cooperative breeding?

Cooperative breeding refers to a breeding system in which group members, other than the genetic parents, help one or both parents rear their offspring. The parental care provided by group members other than the genetic mother is called allomothering. Allomothers are individuals of either sex who are not the mother and can be male, and even the genetic father.

How does Hamilton’s rule explain the altruism of alloparents?

Hamilton’s rule states that the cost of helping should be less than benefits to offspring calibrated in line with the alloparent’s degree of relatedness to his or her charge. Alloparents enhance their inclusive fitness by helping kin. Allomothers help infants as long as cost is not prohibitive and so long as it does not interfere with their own future reproductive career or caring for their own offspring when they have them.

How can cooperative breeding be characterized?

Cooperative breeding systems are flexible and dynamic. They often have one or more mated pairs. There is delayed dispersal by maturing family members. There has to be sufficient phenotypic flexibility so individuals can shift between non-reproductive and reproductive roles. There has to be some underlying neural circuitry among alloparents to respond to signs of infant need.

How can cooperative breeding lead to slower maturation?

As a result of the help of alloparents, the usual quantity versus quality tradeoffs that constrain maternal decisions no longer pertain. Mothers can produce more (or more closely spaced) offspring because the total cost of rearing each offspring to independence can go up without jeopardizing the mother’s own survival or that of her offspring. Also, the reduced costs of child rearing and the benefits of group membership mean higher rates of maternal survival.

How does cooperative breeding influence emotional and cognitive development of infants?

Unlike most other primates, human mothers’ commitment is highly contingent on social circumstances. They respond to lack of support by failing to commit right after birth, abandoning the newborn, or infanticide. They also discriminate about which infants they invest in based on their sex, birth order, and viability. Babies that are born full term and healthy looking, that are sensitive to social support cues, and engage their mothers right from birth have a higher chance of maternal commitment. This supports their emotional and cognitive development.

Why are humans so cooperative and hyper-social?

Humans are distinguished from other apes by their cooperative heritage, instead of the usual competitive heritage. Infants born in cooperative breeding systems depend on different caretakers. Maternal commitment is contingent on the mother’s perception of support from allomothers. Infants have to be adept at monitoring caretakers, reading their intentions and moods, and eliciting their care. Through practice and conditional rewards, infants improve these skills and as they grow up and become adults, become members of a hyper-social, information-sharing, and culture-transmitting species.