“Hyde & Delamater (2017). Gender roles and stereotypes.” – Article summary

Acculturation refers to the process of incorporating the beliefs and customs of a new culture. Socialization refers to the ways in which society conveys to the individual its norms or expectations for their behaviour.

Intersectionality refers to an approach that simultaneously considers the meaning and consequences of multiple categories of identity, differences and disadvantage. It states that the effects of gender roles should not be viewed in isolation. In the classic gender roles, heterosexuality appears to be central.

The comprehension goal states that people stereotype to better understand people. This can be both negative and positive. The self-enhancement goal states that people stereotype for self-enhancement purposes. This tends to be negative.

A gender binary refers to conceptualizing gender as having only two categories. Gender socialization comes from multiple sources (e.g. parents; media). Gendered parenting is mostly implicit.

Other gender differences are that men are more aggressive (1), more impulsive (2) and take more risks (3). They also differ on sensation seeking (1), risk-taking (2) and impulse control (3). Furthermore, girls tend to self-disclose more than boys and girls are better at decoding non-verbal cues and discerning others’ emotions. These differences may be the result of socialization.

Gender differences in sexuality may exist because men are taught to ignore risks (1), prefer more partners (2), women are warier of the environment (3) and are warier of the possibility of rape (4).

It is possible to measure sexual arousal objectively. This can be done using a penile strain gauge (males) or a vaginal photoplethysmograph (females). Both men and women are aroused by erotica but women are sometimes unaware of their physical arousal.

There are three explanation for gender differences:

1. Reliability of self-report
   The gender differences obtained through self-report may be exaggerated due to gender expectations.
2. Anatomy differences
   Women may masturbate less and may be less likely to develop her full sexual potential because her sexual organs are hidden and do not have an obvious arousal response.
3. Hormonal differences
   There may be differences in hormones between men and women explaining gender differences in sexuality but this is heavily contested.

There are four cultural explanations for gender differences in sexuality:

1. Double standard
   The double standard holds that the same sexual behaviour is evaluated differently depending on whether a male or female does it.
2. Gender roles
   The gender roles can determine what behaviour is appropriate for males and females.
3. Marital and family roles
   The roles in a family (e.g. woman as caregiver) could explain sexual behaviour (e.g. woman being more aware of the child’s presence).
4. Body image
   The differences in body satisfaction could explain gender differences in sexuality.

There are also several other explanations for gender differences:

1. Consequences of sexual activity
   The consequences of sexual activity (e.g. pregnancy) can suppress sexuality.
2. Ineffective techniques of stimulating the woman
   The ineffective techniques of stimulating a woman (i.e. sexual intercourse) may lead the woman to engage in less sexual activity.

Gynephilia refers to a sexual attraction to women. Androphilia refers to a sexual attraction to men. Trans people who are gynephilic are more interested in constructing a penis. The sexual attraction of trans people appears to depend on the timing of onset. Late-onset trans adults are more likely to be attracted to the same gender relative to their gender identity.

Anti-trans prejudice refers to negative attitudes and behaviours towards trans individuals. Brief interventions to reduce prejudice and discrimination against trans people can have lasting effects if people engage in active, deep processing of the message. Perspective-taking also seems to work.

A psychologist needs to:

• Inform themselves with basic knowledge about the transgender experience.
• Understand the effects of prejudice, violence and discrimination.
• Understand transgender development across the lifespan.
• Understand that support is crucial.