Parenting practices refer to directly observable specific behaviours that parents use to socialize their children (e.g. supervision with homework). There are two broad dimensions of parenting:

1. Parental support
   This refers to the affective nature of the parent-child relationship. Behaviours involve showing involvement (1), acceptance (2), emotional availability (3), warmth (4) and responsivity (3). This is associated with positive child outcomes.
2. Parental control
   
   1. Behavioural control
      This refers to behaviours aimed at controlling, managing or regulating the child’s behaviour through enforcing demands and rules (1), disciplinary strategies (2), punishment (3) or supervisory functions (4). This is associated with positive child outcomes if not used excessively or not at all.
   2. Psychological control
      This refers to behaviours aimed at manipulating children’s thoughts, feelings and emotions. This is associated with negative child outcomes.

It is possible that a combination of parenting practices impact child development rather than the practices or dimensions in isolation. Parenting style refers to a parent’s configuration of parenting dimensions and practices. Baumrind suggested three parenting styles:

1. Authoritarian parenting style
   This refers to a parenting style where the parents try to shape, control and evaluate their children’s behaviour based on an absolute set of standards.
2. Permissive parenting style
   This refers to a parenting style where the parents are warmer and more autonomy granting rather than controlling.
3. Authoritative parenting style
   This refers to a parenting style which falls between authoritarian and permissive.

Another typology of parenting styles was developed by Maccoby and Martin:

1. Authoritative (i.e. high responsiveness, high demanding).
2. Authoritarian (i.e. low responsiveness, high demanding).
3. Indulgent (i.e. high responsiveness, low demanding).
4. Neglectful (i.e. low responsiveness, low demanding).

Authoritative parenting styles are associated with positive developmental outcomes while permissive and authoritarian styles were not. Outcomes for the children of neglectful parents were the poorest.

Children in two-parent households are influenced by the parenting style of both parents but also by the interaction of these styles (e.g. additive effect for two authoritative parents). By incorporating psychological control, several other parenting styles could be identified:

1. Congruent authoritative parenting style
   This refers to a parenting style where both parents use an authoritative parenting style. Both parents show warmth and involvement but set clear rules and expectations. Undesirable behaviour is disciplined but rarely using physical punishment.
2. Congruent positive authoritative parenting style
   This refers to a parenting style where both parents show warmth and involvement while setting clear rules and expectations. However, they rarely discipline the child and there is strong support and behaviour control to promote desired behaviour.
3. Congruent authoritarian parenting style
   This refers to a parenting style where both parents show less warmth and are less involved in the relationship with their child. There is strict physical punishment without setting clear rules for the child’s behaviour.
4. Congruent intrusive parenting style (i.e. uninvolved)
   This refers to a parenting style where both parents do not show warmth or involvement and do not set rules or discipline the child. There are elevated levels of psychological control.

Parents typically do not differ on parenting dimensions including psychological control. Inadequate behavioural control and psychological control are associated with each other (e.g. harsh disciplining and psychological control often co-occur or precede one another). Parents who engage in psychological control may desire to fulfil their own needs by applying controlling behaviour with their children.

Children of two authoritarian parents showed the most internalizing and externalizing problems. They had more negative and less positive child outcomes compared to other parenting styles. Children of two authoritative showed the lowest levels of conduct problems, especially for congruent positive authoritative parenting styles. There was less prosocial child behaviour for the congruent intrusive parenting style compared to authoritative parenting style. The impact of parenting styles could be reinforced if they are similar in both parents.