Summary of Psychology by Gray and Bjorkland - 8th edition
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Personality is the relatively consistent patterns of thought, feeling and behaviour that characterize each person as a unique individual. A trait is a relatively stable predisposition to behave in a certain way. There are traits that are always present, but there are also traits that need a certain situation before they manifest. Traits are dimensions, which are measurable, continuous characteristics, along which people differ by degree.
Trait theories of personality endeavour to specify a manageable set of distinct personality dimensions that can be used to summarize the fundamental psychological differences among individuals. Factor analysis is used in defining the most useful dimensions. There are three steps in factor analysis:
Factor analysis tells us that the dimensions are relatively independent of each other. The Big Five Theory of Personality states that someone’s personality is best described using five, relatively independent personality dimensions. These dimensions spell out OCEAN.
There was a proposal for a higher-order personality trait independent of IQ that is predictive of success in a wide range of domains and is called grit. Grit is defined as perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Especially the tendency to persist at difficult tasks seems to be important for predicting success. The validity of the Big Five Theory of Personality is measured by checking the correlation between the test and the actual behaviour.
People with socially aversive personalities score high on the dark triad, which consists of three things:
Personality is relatively constant throughout adulthood and stays constant after 50 years of age. The older someone is, the less likely it is that their personality is going to change. The heritability of personality traits is about 0.50. The household in which an individual grew up does not correlate with personality at all. A single gene may influence neuroticism, as well as the neurotransmitter serotine. A single gene may influence novelty seeking, as well as the neurotransmitter dopamine.
It could be that personality is a side-effect of evolution. It could also be that personality has an evolutionary advantage. If there are more different types of individuals in one species, the likeliness of survival is bigger. There are differences in behavioural styles across species. The Big Five can be thought of as alternative general strategies for solving problems related to survival and reproduction. There is a trait that is associated with change and is called differential susceptibility to environmental influence. Individuals with this trait are very susceptible to their environment, for better and for worse.
Pre-existing small differences between siblings may become exaggerated in part because siblings tend to define themselves as different from one another and tend to accentuate those differences through their own behavioural choices. The sibling contrast refers to the within-family emphasis on the differences between siblings. The split-parent identification is a tendency for each of two siblings to identify with a different one of their two parents. A possible explanation for why siblings and parents accentuate differences is that is could possibly reduce sibling rivalry, which can be disruptive to family functioning.
There are gender differences in personality. Women score higher on agreeableness than men and women generally score higher on neuroticism. Gender influences the personality one develops. A possible explanation for this lies in cultural expectations for each gender. Gender differences in personality can be explained by the social expectations for each gender.
Freud used the term psychoanalysis to refer both to his method of treatment and to his theory of personality. Today, the type of therapy Freud used is called psychodynamic theories. These theories emphasize the interplay of mental forces. People are often unconscious of their motives and there are processes called defence mechanisms within the mind to keep unacceptable or anxiety/producing motives and thoughts out of the consciousness. Freud proposed a theory in which a child develops through several stages:
Erikson believes that there are several psychosocial stages of development:
Freud believes that the real reason for our actions lies in the unconsciousness. Defence mechanisms are mental processes of self-deception with the goal to reduce one’s consciousness of wishes, memories and other thoughts that would threaten one’s self-esteem or in other ways provoke a strong sense of insecurity or anxiety. There are several defence mechanisms:
Repressors are people who regularly repress emotions accompanying disturbing events in life. Repressors report less psychological distress but show more physiological distress than non-repressors. Defence mechanisms can be divided into three separate categories:
Humanistic theories of personality emphasize people’s understanding of themselves and their capacity to choose their own paths to fulfilment. Phenomenology is the study of conscious perceptions and understandings. Phenomenological reality refers to each person’s conscious understanding of his own world. Self-actualisation refers to the process of becoming one’s full self. This includes realizing one’s dreams and capabilities. People will always make choices that are best for their own development. According to phenomenologists, humans have five needs that are in hierarchical order:
People can only focus on a higher need if the one below it is sufficiently satisfied.
Social-cognitive theories of personality emphasize the roles of general beliefs about the nature of the world, which are acquired through one’s experiences in the social environment. The locus of control refers to the tendency of people to behave according to a generalized disposition (a personality trait) acquired from past experience. People who believe that they control their own rewards are said to have an internal locus of control and people that believe that rewards are controlled by factors outside themselves are said to have an external locus of control.
Self-efficacy refers to people’s beliefs about their own abilities to perform specific tasks. Self-efficacy refers to the person’s sense of his own ability, while the locus of control refers to the person’s belief that ability will produce its desired effects. If people expect that they can do something, they are more likely to be able to do it. People who are more malleable, meaning that the belief that they are not fixed entities are more likely to strive for self-improvement.
The personality traits of the big five can differ per situation. Two children can have the same score for aggression, but that trait might manifest itself in completely different situations for both children (e.g: one child shows aggression when warned by an adult while another child shows aggression when teased by a peer).
The eight DIAMONDS dimensions of situations measure the situations. It describes the situation.
There are cultural differences of personality, especially across collectivistic and individualistic cultures.
This bundle contains everything you need to know for the second interim exam of Introduction to Psychology for the University of Amsterdam. It uses the book "Psychology by P. Gray and D. F., Bjorkland (eight edition)". The bundle contains the following chapters:
- 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16.
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This bundle describes a summary of the book "Psychology by P. Gray and D. F., Bjorkland (eight edition)". The following chapters are used:
- 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16.
This bundle contains everything you need to know for the second interim exam of Introduction to Psychology for the University of Amsterdam. It uses the book "Psychology by P. Gray and D. F., Bjorkland (eight edition)". The bundle contains the following chapters:
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