Adolescence and emerging adulthood: A cultural approach by Jeffrey Arnett and Malcolm Hughes (sixth edition) – Book summary
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During adolescence and emerging adulthood, the emotional centre of people’s lives shift from their immediate families to people outside of the family (i.e. friends). Friends provide a bridge between the close attachment to family members and the close attachments of a romantic partner.Peers refer to people who have certain aspects of their status in common (e.g. both playing the same sport; both approximately the same age). Peers become more important during adolescence across cultures, although gender differences in adolescent relationships are more pronounced in traditional cultures. However, compared to Western culture, more time is spent with the family. In adolescence, time spent with same-sex friends remains stable and time with other-sex friends increases. The relationships with family and friends during adolescence change in both quantity and quality. Adolescents start to depend more on friends than on parents or siblings for companionship and intimacy. Parents are preferred to discuss topics related to education and future occupation but friends are preferred for personal topics. The direct influence of parents decreases during adolescence but parents shape adolescent peer relationships in indirect ways by influencing their social network (e.g. choice of residence; school) (1), encouraging or discouraging contact with some peers (2) and through their parenting practices (3). Adolescents typically feel happier with friends than with family because friends mirror emotions and because they feel free and open with friends that they rarely do with parents. Adolescents’ attachment to friends and their strong reliance on friends leave them vulnerable emotionally (e.g. a lot of worry about whether they are liked). Intimacy refers to the degree to which two people share personal knowledge, thoughts and feelings. Adolescent friendships are characterized by intimacy more than friendships in childhood. The need for intimacy with friends...
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Puberty refers to the set of biological changes involved in reaching physical and sexual maturity and is universal. Adolescence refers to a life stage between the time puberty begins and the time adult status is approached. This is typically between the age of 10 to 18. In this stage, young people are preparing to take on the roles and responsibilities of adulthood in their culture. It is culturally constructed. The length (1), content (2) and daily experiences of adolescence (3) differ among cultures.
Plato and Aristotle believed that people develop reason in adolescence. In the middle ages, adolescence was seen as a time of innocence. Life-cycle service refers to a period late adolescence and early 20s in which young people would engage in domestic service, farm service or apprenticeships in various trades and crafts. This involved moving out of the family household and into the household of a master to whom the young person was in service for. This occurred between 1500 and 1890.
The period between 1890 and 1920 is known as the Age of adolescence as there were laws restricting child labour (1), requirements for children to attend secondary school (2) and the development of the field of adolescence as an area of scientific study (3).
The theory of recapitulation holds that the development of each individual recapitulates or re-enacts the evolutionary development of the human species as a whole. Adolescence was seen as reflecting a time of evolutionary turmoil and this was used as an explanation why adolescence is characterized by storm and stress.
The idea of storm and stress holds that adolescence is characterized by a period of upheaval and disruption. This is reflected in high rates of conflicts with parents (1), mood disruptions (2) and risk behaviour (3). Adolescence is a period which is not necessarily characterized by storm and stress although it is more likely in this period.
Emerging adulthood refers to the period of life between adolescence and full-adult status. This includes the ages between 18 and 25. This period has five characteristics:
People in this stage explore various possibilities in love and work and move towards making enduring choices. They develop a more definitive identity through trying out these possibilities. Emerging adults focus on themselves to develop knowledge, skills and self-understanding needed for adult life. The focus on the self does not mean selfishness.
Emerging adulthood does not exist in all cultures and cultures vary widely in the ages that young people are expected to enter full adulthood and take on adult responsibilities.
PET (positron emission tomography) scans and fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) are useful for studying the brain.
A lot of the thickening of synaptic connections occurs around the time puberty begins. Overproduction (i.e. exuberance) refers to the thickening of synaptic connection and this mainly occurs around the time puberty begins. It peaks around the age of 11 or 12. It also occurs during prenatal development. Exuberance during puberty is focused in the frontal lobes. The frontal lobes are associated with the higher functions of the brain (e.g. planning; problem solving; moral judgement).
Synaptic pruning refers to the selective ‘death’ of synapses. This occurs after exuberance and occurs between the ages of 12 and 20. The synapses that are used remain while the ones that are not used disappear (i.e. “use it or lose it”). Synaptic pruning is especially rapid among adolescents with high intelligence. It allows the brain to work more efficiently as brain pathways become more specialized. The brain becomes less plastic due to synaptic pruning.
Myelination refers to the production of a myelin layer around axons. This increases the speed of electrical signals between neurons. This process continues throughout the teenage years. The brain thus becomes faster and more efficient during adolescence although it becomes less plastic.
The cerebellum also grows during adolescence and into emerging adulthood. It is important for basic functions such as movement but also for higher functions (e.g. mathematics; music; decision making; social skills). It is the last brain area that stops growing.
Adolescents are cognitively more advanced than children but are not yet mature. Decision making (1), anticipation of consequences (2) and problem solving (3) has not fully matured yet.
Self-conception refers to the notion of what kind of person one is. Self-esteem refers to the capacity to evaluate one’s fundamental worth as a person. Identity refers to one’s perception of their capacity and characteristics and how this fit into the opportunities available to them. Self-reflection increases in adolescence as a result of normal cognitive development but culture has a profound influence on how people experience this change.
People’s self-conceptions change with age. Self-conceptions become more abstract and more complex in adolescence. Self-conceptions become more trait-focused and the traits become more abstract (e.g. being outgoing).
There is a cultural difference between collectivistic (i.e. interdependent self) and individualistic (i.e. independent self) cultures with regard to self-conception. In collectivistic cultures, the self is defined by social relationships.
The ideal self refers to the person the adolescent would like to be. The feared self refers to the person the adolescent imagines it is possible to become but dreads becoming. Possible selves only exist as abstractions. The discrepancy between the ideal and the actual self can lead to problems (e.g. feelings of depression). However, awareness of actual and possible selves can also provide adolescents with motivation to strive toward their ideal self. Delinquent adolescents were less likely to have a clear ideal self. The false self refers to a self that adolescents present to others while realizing that it does not represent what they are actually thinking and feeling.
Adolescents need to learn how to understand and manage their emotions, though adolescence is characterized by heightened emotions. Brain development may lead to adolescents’ emotionality. There is low activity in the frontal lobes and high activity in the amygdala during emotional processing while the opposite is true for adults. Adolescents’ new and increased capacity for abstract thought as well as interpretation of new peer situations leads to a differential emotional response. Adolescents report less positive emotions compared to childhood.
According to Gilligan, boys learn to assert their opinions during adolescence while girls become insecure and lose their ‘voice’. This is the result of differences in emotional responses to social relationships with girls being more sensitive to nuance. The discrepancy between the desires of the culture for both sexes can lead to this and in its extreme, lead to heightened psychopathology rates. However, the studies are methodologically weak and self-esteem declines for both girls and boys in adolescence.
Adolescents are able to engage in frequent self-reflection because they are often by themselves. While their mood tends to be lower when they are alone (e.g. in their bedroom), their mood tends to rise after a period of being alone. This time may thus be used for self-reflection and mood management. Being alone can be constructive as long as the adolescent is not alone too often.
Social loneliness refers to the perception of lacking a sufficient number of social contacts and relationships. Emotional loneliness refers to the perception of lacking closeness and
.....read moreDuring adolescence and emerging adulthood, the emotional centre of people’s lives shift from their immediate families to people outside of the family (i.e. friends). Friends provide a bridge between the close attachment to family members and the close attachments of a romantic partner.
Peers refer to people who have certain aspects of their status in common (e.g. both playing the same sport; both approximately the same age). Peers become more important during adolescence across cultures, although gender differences in adolescent relationships are more pronounced in traditional cultures. However, compared to Western culture, more time is spent with the family.
In adolescence, time spent with same-sex friends remains stable and time with other-sex friends increases. The relationships with family and friends during adolescence change in both quantity and quality. Adolescents start to depend more on friends than on parents or siblings for companionship and intimacy. Parents are preferred to discuss topics related to education and future occupation but friends are preferred for personal topics.
The direct influence of parents decreases during adolescence but parents shape adolescent peer relationships in indirect ways by influencing their social network (e.g. choice of residence; school) (1), encouraging or discouraging contact with some peers (2) and through their parenting practices (3).
Adolescents typically feel happier with friends than with family because friends mirror emotions and because they feel free and open with friends that they rarely do with parents. Adolescents’ attachment to friends and their strong reliance on friends leave them vulnerable emotionally (e.g. a lot of worry about whether they are liked).
Intimacy refers to the degree to which two people share personal knowledge, thoughts and feelings. Adolescent friendships are characterized by intimacy more than friendships in childhood. The need for intimacy with friends intensifies in early adolescence. This is partly due to increases in capabilities for perspective taking and empathy. Friends promote further enhancement of perspective taking because they share their thoughts. Adolescents find trust (1), loyalty (2) and intimacy (3) more important in friendships as compared to younger children who are focused on shared activities (e.g. baseball). Self-disclosure promoted emotional closeness for young women whereas shared activities where usually the basis of feeling emotional closeness in young men.
Adolescents’ greater abilities for abstract thinking makes it possible for adolescents to think about and talk about more abstract qualities in their relationships. Adolescents also have a greater ability for complex thinking and this allows them to discuss the complexities of social relationships. Talking about these social cognitive topics promotes the kind of exchange of personal knowledge and perspectives that constitutes intimacy.
There are consistent gender differences in the intimacy of adolescent friendships. Girls tend to have more intimate friendships than boys (1), girls spend more time than boys talking to their friends (2), they place a higher value on talking together as a component of their friendship (3), they rate their friendships as higher in affection, helpfulness and nurturance
.....read moreAdolescents’ academic performance is related in crucial ways to their family relationships (1), friendships (2), work patterns (3) and leisure patterns (4). Cultural beliefs are important in determining what is required from adolescents academically.
Adolescents in developed countries started going to secondary school about a century ago. Schooling became the normative experience for adolescence. The same pattern is observed in developing countries but at a delayed rate. Adolescents being in school is a direct consequence of economic development.
The content of secondary school has changed over time as well. There was no specific economic purpose of the curriculum in the 19th century but this changed as more adolescents started attending school. Schools started to focus more on training for work and citizenship. The comprehensive high school includes classes in general education, college preparation and vocational training. Many European countries have three types of secondary schools:
In this European system, adolescents need to decide relatively early what kind of future they envision. A later choice is likely more beneficial for adolescents. However, putting adolescents with different interests and educational levels together makes it more difficult for teachers to provide effective teaching. It can also be frustrating for adolescents who do have a specific idea of their future.
Rates of secondary school enrolment vary widely among developing countries. The economy is often not industrialized which makes school-based knowledge of limited use. In China and Japan, admission to university is restricted to the highest performing students. This leads to intense pressure at high school level. Secondary education in developing countries is often characterized by gender differences (1), poor funding (2), overcrowding (3), poorly trained teachers (4) and a big difference between public and private schools (5).
The goal of schools used to be socialization and conforming to the (religious) norm. Nowadays, the goal is to promote independent thinking. In developed countries, almost all adolescents go to secondary school while this is not the case for developing countries. Tertiary education is obtained by about 70% of the emerging adults in developed countries but not in developing countries.
The key influence on adolescents’ academic performance is the level of economic development in their country. This means that the developed countries tend to perform best.
Large schools can be alienating but can also offer a more diverse range of classes. There is no consistent relationship between school size and academic achievement. Students in smaller schools are more likely to participate in extracurricular activities compared to students in larger schools. The best school size for adolescents is between 500 and 1000 students. The class size should typically be
.....read moreAdolescents with externalizing problems tend to come from families where parental monitoring and control is lacking (i.e. under controlled). Externalizing problems are more common among males than females. Risk behaviour refers to behaviours that involve the risk of negative outcomes (e.g. substance use). Problem behaviour refers to behaviour that is viewed as a source of problems (e.g. unprotected sex).
People with externalizing problems often do not experience distress. Externalizing behaviours may be a manifestation of problems with family, friends or school but this need not be the case. It is often not motivated by unhappiness or psychopathology but by desire for excitement and intense experiences.
Driving is the number one source of death in adolescence and emerging adulthood in developed countries. Accidents are especially high in the first few months of driving but fall after having a license for more than a year. This means that inexperience plays a role in the mortality due to driving. However, younger drivers are also more likely to engage in risky driving. This includes driving at excessive speeds (1), following other vehicles too closely (2), violate traffic signs and signals (3), take more risks in lane changing and passing other vehicles (4), allowing too little time to merge (5) and failing to yield to pedestrians (6). They are also more likely to drive under the influence. Next, they are less likely to wear seatbelts.
Parental involvement and monitoring of adolescents’ driving behaviour is important in the early months of driving. Friends’ influence promotes risky driving. Personality characteristics such as sensation seeking and aggressiveness promote risky driving. The optimistic bias (i.e. the belief that one is less likely than others to get into a car crash) is stronger in younger drivers.
Driver education programmes is not very effective in reducing risky driving. Graduated driver licensing (GDL) refers to a programme that allows young people restricted driving privileges when they first receive their license and it gradually increases the privileges if the restrictions are not violated. GDL often consists of three stages:
Substance use is a common form of risk behaviour in adolescence and emerging adulthood. The rate of substance abuse depends on the substance. The majority of people who smoke begin in their early teens. There are ethnic differences in risk behaviour as substance use is greater in Caucasian and Latino populations than in African American and Asian American populations. Substance use rates rise past age 15 through the end of
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