Psychology in the Workplace
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Lecture 6 Nanxi Yan
Motivation to Work
What Does It Mean to Be a Good Performer?
Task Performance (+)
Ø Job-specific, unique to one’s job Ø
Citizenship behavior (+)
Ø Job-general
Ø Directed towards individuals
Ø Directed towards the organization
Counterproductive behavior (-)
Ø Job-general
Ø Targeted to other individuals or the organization
Ø Can be minor or major
Where Does Job Performance Come From?
! Assuming people have the knowledge, skills, abilities, and personality to perform the job, what else….?
• Commitment (Next Lecture)
• Motivation
Motivation: a brief history
[note: deze afbeelding uit het college is door de WorldSupporter redactie verwijderd wegens vermoedelijke inbreuk op het auteursrecht]
tivation pertains to control
Human beings generally want to be effective – at exerting control and establishing what is true and real (Bandura, 1977; Higgins, 2011)
Motivation can be automatic and non-conscious (Chartrand & Bargh, 1996)
[note: deze afbeelding uit het college is door de WorldSupporter redactie verwijderd wegens vermoedelijke inbreuk op het auteursrecht]
Motivation: A set of forces that originates both within and outside an employee, and determines the direction, intensity, and persistence of work effort.
[note: deze afbeelding uit het college is door de WorldSupporter redactie verwijderd wegens vermoedelijke inbreuk op het auteursrecht]
Job performace = (motivation x ability) – situational constraints
Motivation theories
• Self-Determination Theory
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
• McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
• Social Justice Theories (e.g., Equity Theory)
• Reinforcement Theory and Behavior Modification
• Social Learning Theory
• Goal Setting Theory
• VIE (Expectancy) Theory
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
[note: deze afbeelding uit het college is door de WorldSupporter redactie verwijderd wegens vermoedelijke inbreuk op het auteursrecht]
! Employer needs to know at what need level individual worker is operating
! Group of workers may all be functioning at different need levels
! Fits person-as-machine metaphor
Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory
[note: deze afbeelding uit het college is door de WorldSupporter redactie verwijderd wegens vermoedelijke inbreuk op het auteursrecht]
McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
Proposes that people acquire dominant needs through their life experiences (influenced by culture, society etc.)
Need for Achievement (nAch): The desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet one’s own high standards.
Need for Affiliation (nAff): The desire to establish and maintain good relations with others. Need for Power (nPow): The desire to exert emotional and behavioral control or influence over others.
Measuring McClelland’s Needs
Needs are measured with the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Conclusions about Content Theories
! Restrict explanations of motivation to a particular set of factors and how these motivate people (-)
! Intuitively appealing but lack empirical support (i.e., research evidence) (-)
! Identify concepts useful for gaining a better understanding of motivation (+)
! Valuable starting point for examining cultural and individual differences in motivation (+)
Motivating with the Basic Needs
1. Ask employees what their needs are à McClelland says needs are different for different people.
2. Satisfy lower order needs first. à Maslow says higher order needs won’t motivate people as long as lower order needs stay unsatisfied.
3. Expect people’s needs to change. à Once lower order needs are satisfied, different motivators.
4. Create opportunities for employees to satisfy higher-order needs, as lower order needs are satisfied. Take-away? Your motivation strategy really depends on the workforce you are managing!
Process Theories
1. Social Justice Theories (e.g., Equity Theory)
2. Reinforcement Theory and Behavior Modification
3. Social Learning Theory
4. VIE Theory
5. Goal Setting Theory
A goal = a desired outcome
Vroom’s VIE theory
! Valence: Strength of person’s preference for particular outcome.
! Instrumentality: Perceived relationship between performance & attainment of a certain outcome.
! Expectancy: Perceived relationship between effort and performance.
Motivating with the VIE Theory
Steps in Motivating Employees:
! Find out what employees want from their jobs
• So you understand whether the rewards you offer are attractive.
! Link rewards to individual performance in a clear way
• So that employees understand the relationship between the two.
! Make sure that there are no major obstacles between their effort and their performance
Goal Setting Theory
[note: deze afbeelding uit het college is door de WorldSupporter redactie verwijderd wegens vermoedelijke inbreuk op het auteursrecht]
Self-efficacy :
Belief in one’s capacity to perform a specific task or reach a specific goal
Developed and influenced by:
§ Mastery experiences (success)
§ Social persuasion
§ Physiological states
§ Modeling
[note: deze afbeelding uit het college is door de WorldSupporter redactie verwijderd wegens vermoedelijke inbreuk op het auteursrecht]
Applications of Goal Setting Theory: SMART goals
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Result oriented
Time bound
Motivating with Goal-Setting Theory
1. Pay attention to goal-setting theory! Research suggests that it is among the most important and useful single approaches to motivating performance!
2. Assign them specific, challenging goals.
3. Make sure that workers truly accept organizational goals.
4. Provide frequent, specific, performance-related feedback
Managing motivation
Can managers/organizations, indeed shape employee motivation?
! Do implicit or unconscious influences affect work motivation?
! What about the motivation NOT to work?
! Procrastination
! Solution aversion
! Job (re-)design
Situational Influences: Conscious and nonconscious
Call Center Performance Nonconscious
Goal:
“Poster” condition: M = 18.68
(No Poster): M = 14.74
Conscious Goal
“Do your best”: M = 14.48
Specific (difficult) goal: M = 18.94
Goal Commitment
! Higher persistence, overcoming obstacles
! After taking goal-directed action, there are opposite effects of interpreting it as reinforcing one’s commitment (+) vs. making progress (-)
! Implementation Intentions: Strong effects of simple plans
If situation X occurs, then I will perform behavior Y
Motivation to NOT work: Predicting Procrastination
Neuroticism (+) Agreeableness (-) Extraversion (-) Impulsiveness (++) Sensation seeking (++) Boredom proneness (++) Fear of failure (+) Self-efficacy (--) Self-esteem (-) Self-handicapping (++) Depression (+)
Solution Aversion
! Don’t like the solution? Deny a problem exists!
! “Motivated Disbelief”
[note: deze afbeelding uit het college is door de WorldSupporter redactie verwijderd wegens vermoedelijke inbreuk op het auteursrecht]
How can you motivate employees ?
1. Ensure that workers’ abilities match the job (ability)
2. Make jobs attractive and consistent with worker’s motives and values (commitment)
3. Facilitate self-efficacy
4. Define clear, challenging goals (goal setting)
5. Provide necessary resources to do the job (opportunity)
6. Create social support system (recognition) • Know what kind of recognition makes a difference • Recognize others’ contributions often • Personalize recognition
7. Use rewards for good performance 8. Job characteristics model
9. Job (re-)design
The Job Characteristics Model
! A comprehensive approach to making work more interesting (i.e., motivating). ! Core job dimensions include: 1. skill variety 2. task identity 3. task significance 4. autonomy 5. feedback
Job (re)design
Scientific Management: A set of principles and practices designed to increase the performance of individual workers by stressing job simplification and specialization (p. 20). § Job simplification: The breaking up of the work that needs to be performed in an organization into the smallest identifiable tasks. § Job specialization: The assignment of workers to perform small, simple tasks.
Job enlargement: Increasing the number of tasks an employee performs but keeping all of the tasks at the same level of difficulty and responsibility; also called horizontal job loading.
Job enrichment: Increasing an employee’s responsibility and control over his or her work; also called vertical job loading.
Autonomous work group (p. 522) Specific kind of production team that has control over a variety of functions.
Cross-Cultural Issues in Motivation ! Hofstede’s cultural theory " Cultures differ on 5 dimensions • Collectivism/individualism • Uncertainty avoidance • Masculinity/femininity • Power dimensions • Long-term vs. short-term orientation " Application to motivation measurement
Generational Differences & Work Motivation ! Generation ! Defined by group members who share birth years & significant life events ! e.g., Baby Boomers, Generation Xers, Milliennials, Gen Z
Generational Differences (cont'd) ! Younger employees appear to be more “me” oriented ! Younger workers may be less about “pride in work” and more about ”meaning” and “purpose” ! Work becomes less idealized as workers age
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There will be 2 assesments.
Why do people work?
For money? Would people still work if they did not need the money? If you became an instant millionaire.. would you still work?
Work Values
Intrinsic Values
▪ Interesting work ▪ Challenging work ▪ Learning new things ▪ Making important contributions ▪ Responsibility and autonomy ▪ Being creative
Extrinsic Values
▪ Pay ▪ Social contacts ▪ Status in wider community
Organizations can serve different work values
What is I-O psychology?
I-O psychology applies psychological principles, theory, and research to the work setting (p. 4-5)
Scientists who derive principles of individual, group, and organizational behavior through research. They are employed at (semi-)public organizations (e.g., universities, TNO) and private organizations. 21 What is I-O Psychology? Consultants and staff psychologists who develop scientific knowledge and apply it to the solution of problems at work. They are employed in (semi-) public and private organizations and consulting companies.
Teachers who train in the research and application of I-O psychology.
Consultants and staff psychologists who develop scientific knowledge and apply it to the solution of problems at work. They are employed in (semi-) public and private organizations and consulting companies.
Industrial-organizational psychology helps develop strategies that build better organizations
An I-O Psychologist can help organizations with:
1. Staffing and workforce development (Personnel or Industrial Psychology)
2. Enhancing motivation, team effectiveness, and organizational development (Organizational Psychology)
3. Work design and workplace climate issues (Human Engineering)
Common issues:
-employment discrimination
-psychosocial or physical health
-concept of ‘work-life balance’
-the ‘new world of work’
Special issues:
-sports
-humanitarian
-conflict areas
- special assessment
Scientist-Practitioner Model : Using scientific tools and research in the practice of I-O psychology (vs. relying on “best practices” or experience)
•Selection and placement
•Training and development
•Organizational development
•Performance measurement
•Quality of worklife
•Engineering psychology
The bottom line in any organization is performance.
26 What is I-O Psychology? Performance (job performance, creativity), motivation, leadership, and well-being are the key dependent variables in the I-O research program at the RuG
Changes in the Workplace since 1980
▪ Personal computing
▪ Telecommuting & virtual teams
▪ Videoconferencing
▪ Service vs. manufacturing
▪ Teams vs. the individual
▪ Little stability
▪ Family-friendly workplaces
▪ Global workplace
▪ Greater diversity
Why study I-O psychology?
Knowledge about I-O psychology pays off for your own professional career, regardless of profession.
▪ I-O psychology applies theories, models, and principles from all areas of psychology.
▪ Studying I-O psychology improves your understanding of how individuals and groups act, think, and feel in organizations.
▪ Our lay theories and beliefs about I-O psychology may be false, or may be correct only under a narrow set of circumstances.
Think about the similarities and differences about theories.
The Hawthorne Experiments (1927-1933):
The purpose was to investigate how characteristics of the work setting, i.e., intensity of illumination, rest
Lecture 2
There will be 2 assesments.
Are Individual Differences Relevant?
To test this, lets tap into our implicit theories
• Focus on one of these occupations:
• Accountant, (serious man, nicely dressed, does not talk enthusiastic, on the computer all day working with numbers, organized)
• Event Coordinator, and (enthusiastic talking, busy with phone calls)
• Heavy Equipment Operator (not proper dressed, dirty hands
• Close you eyes, and imagine the typical ________. What are they like? Quickly, brainstorm a list of personality characteristics, abilities or other personal characteristics.
What do Individual Differences Tell Us?
• Personality
• Captures what people are like as individuals
• Ability
• Capture what people can do as individuals
Personality
• The structures and propensities inside a person that explain his or her characteristic patterns of thoughts, emotion, and behavior
• For our purposes today:
• Traits are defined as recurring regularities or trends in people’s responses to their environment
• While we could come up with thousands of traits adjectives, most of them would cluster around five general dimensions
• We call these dimensions the “Big Five”
[note: enkele afbeeldingen uit het college zijn door de WorldSupporter redactie verwijderd wegens vermoedelijke inbreuk op het auteursrecht]
How Important is Personality?
• C and ES (reflected N) are positively correlated with job performances in virtually all jobs
• O,C, and A predicted discretionary pro-social and proorganizational behaviors across jobs Question: How might this knowledge be applied at work? people choose jobs that match their personalities. Some kind of jobs require some kind of personalities, so we have to filter on that.
Abilities
• The relatively stable capabilities people have to perform a particular range of different but related activities
• In contrast to skills, which are more trainable and improvable
• As with personality, about half of the variation in ability levels is due to genetics
Types of Human Abilities
• Cognitive Abilities
• Capabilities related to the acquisition and application of knowledge in problem solving
• Examples: Verbal, Quantitative, Reasoning, Spatial, Perceptual
• Emotional Intelligence
• Capabilities related to the management and the use of emotions when interacting with others
• Physical Abilities
• Capabilities related to the performance of physical work
• Examples: Strength; Stamina; Flexibility and Coordination; Psychomotor; Sensory
How Important Is Ability?
• Cognitive ability predicts job performance in vitually all jobs
• Emotional intelligence predicts performance only when jobs involve a high degree
.....read moreLecture 3
Why should we care about job performance?
Performance is the bottom line in any organization.
Effective Performance Productivity
What is job performance?
Multi-dimensional approach to performance
Job performance includes:
Over periods of time:
Immediately:
Actual performance, all of it, and nothing else
Understanding performance
[note: deze afbeelding uit het college is door de WorldSupporter redactie verwijderd wegens vermoedelijke inbreuk op het auteursrecht]
Lecture 5
Training and development
Managing ability in organizations
1.Employee selection
Identify tasks to be accomplished Identify abilities needed to accomplish tasks Develop accurate measures of abilities Select the individuals who meet the requirements
2. Placement (P-E fit)
Match workers to jobs to capitalize on their abilities
3.Training
The systematic acquisition of skills, concepts, or attitudes that results in improved performance in another environment
Training: Systematic acquisition of skills, concepts, or attitudes resulting in improved performance in another environment
Training increases probability of learning, and learning increases probability of better job performance.
Training Needs Analysis
! 3-step process to develop systematic understanding of where training is needed (organizational), what needs to be trained (task), & who will be trained (person)
In general, organizations benefit from investing in learning and development programs:
! Improve the bottom-line performance of the organization by giving employees the skills needed to perform well.
! Reduce external recruiting costs by preparing current employees for greater tasks or leadership roles.
! Increase employee retention by visibly demonstrating to employees an investment in their career development and growth.
Grim example: Need for assertiveness training
[note: deze afbeelding uit het college is door de WorldSupporter redactie verwijderd wegens vermoedelijke inbreuk op het auteursrecht]
Impact of trainee characteristics, e.g.:
1. Ability Mental ability (“g”) Metacognitive skills (understanding one’s cognitions)
2. Self-monitoring
3. Self-theory (perceptions about self)
4. Achievement goals (performance/mastery)
5. Feedback seeking behavior: Self-enhancement vs. selfimprovement
[note: deze afbeelding uit het college is door de WorldSupporter redactie verwijderd wegens vermoedelijke inbreuk op het auteursrecht]
Learning: Social Comparison Theory
Festinger (1954): There is a “drive” within individuals to gain accurate self-evaluations to (i) reduce uncertainty about the self and (ii) learn how to define the self.
Theoretical advances (1970’s – 1980’s):
• Self-evaluation: If motivation is accuracy, then choose a comparison target similar to oneself • Self-enhancement: If motivation is to increase positive self-regard, one might Interpret, distort, or ignore information when making self-evaluation
• Upward and downward social comparison: Choosing a comparison target of people better/worse off. - opposing effects for self-improvement - opposing effects for self-regard
Vicarious Learning: Learning that occurs when one person (the learner) learns a behavior by watching another person (the model) perform the behavior (e.g., “watch and learn”, imitation, social contagion)
Learning: Contagion Effects
Goals, motives, values, and beliefs are socially contagious Achievement motivation (and apathy) is socially contagious Burnout spreads among teachers & medical professionals. Media exposure facilitates “mass shooting contagion”
In 2013, scientists at Facebook showed massivescale emotional contagion by manipulating news feeds to include more positive (vs. negative) posts from friends.
Benchmarking: Putting Social Comparison
.....read moreLecture 6 Nanxi Yan
Motivation to Work
What Does It Mean to Be a Good Performer?
Task Performance (+)
Ø Job-specific, unique to one’s job Ø
Citizenship behavior (+)
Ø Job-general
Ø Directed towards individuals
Ø Directed towards the organization
Counterproductive behavior (-)
Ø Job-general
Ø Targeted to other individuals or the organization
Ø Can be minor or major
Where Does Job Performance Come From?
! Assuming people have the knowledge, skills, abilities, and personality to perform the job, what else….?
• Commitment (Next Lecture)
• Motivation
Motivation: a brief history
[note: deze afbeelding uit het college is door de WorldSupporter redactie verwijderd wegens vermoedelijke inbreuk op het auteursrecht]
tivation pertains to control
Human beings generally want to be effective – at exerting control and establishing what is true and real (Bandura, 1977; Higgins, 2011)
Motivation can be automatic and non-conscious (Chartrand & Bargh, 1996)
[note: deze afbeelding uit het college is door de WorldSupporter redactie verwijderd wegens vermoedelijke inbreuk op het auteursrecht]
Motivation: A set of forces that originates both within and outside an employee, and determines the direction, intensity, and persistence of work effort.
[note: deze afbeelding uit het college is door de WorldSupporter redactie verwijderd wegens vermoedelijke inbreuk op het auteursrecht]
Job performace = (motivation x ability) – situational constraints
Motivation theories
• Self-Determination Theory
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
• McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
• Social Justice Theories (e.g., Equity Theory)
• Reinforcement Theory and Behavior Modification
• Social Learning Theory
• Goal Setting Theory
• VIE (Expectancy) Theory
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
[note: deze afbeelding uit het college is door de WorldSupporter redactie verwijderd wegens vermoedelijke inbreuk op het auteursrecht]
! Employer needs to know at what need level individual worker is operating
! Group of workers may all be functioning at different need levels
! Fits person-as-machine
.....read more
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