Who was Sune Carlson and what was his view on managerial work and fragmentation?

In the research on leadership there has been a strong tendency to put the leader at the centre-stage, disregarding the context and dynamics of leadership practices. Sune Carlson was a Swedish economist who provided pioneering work where the focus lied on activity patterns and work content. The main conclusion is that managerial work is highly fragmented, and managers would be better off if they managed their time so that they could devote more time to strategic thinking. The fragmentation of managerial work remains a big concern and the understanding of the highly reactive work pattern of managers is still in dispute. Some research has shown that managerial work itself produced fragmentation. Other research concluded that instead of measuring the frequency of activities, there should be more focus on the amount of time spent on activities. 

Why should sense-making and the time-perspective be taken into consideration when investigating managerial work?

It is necessary to start to consider the integrated job of managing, using sense-making as a point of departure. Individuals act first and understand the significance of their actions afterwards. In an organized context there is a constant need for interpretation and sense-making. The time-perspective is crucial in understanding how things are done in organization and how managerial leadership functions, since actions precede their interpretations. 

How is the time-perspective related to the distinction between leading and managing?

The focus on managerial work has been replaced by an emphasis on the leadership dimension. When leadership is distinguished from managerial work, it implies a sense of timing. In the present leaders take actions that have consequences for the future because the employees perform activities as a consequence of these actions. Leadership then becomes a question of relationships between activities that occur today and those that are expected to occur in the future. This view of managers as strategic actors with a mission places the manager at the centre of the sense-making process. 

What is the research design used by Holmberg and Tyrstrup in their managerial leadership study?

The main goal of their study was to collect live cases of everyday leadership. It is a qualitative approach with an emphasis on analyzing and identifying the ´typical´ cases and themes in the narratives of people in managerial positions. Two of the main questions were `What were the narratives about?` and `What were the narratives not about?`.The events and situations described by the managers are expressed in a narrative form. 

Why does the concept of time play an important role in this study?

Several reasons can be identified as to why the concept of time cannot be ignored when examining the managers´ narratives. Firstly, the main characteristic of a narrative is the temporal ordering of events and a suggested connection between events, which is the basis means by which specific events are put into one meaningful whole. Secondly, many activities in an organization are performed working according to a tight schedule. Thirdly, time needs to be considered to be able to understand leadership action as some decisions may seem very logical one day and illogical another day. 

Which three models were the most relevant for how managers think about their everyday leadership? 

According to most of the managers in the study, three models reflect the tension between controlling and managing events as opposed to finding oneself trapped by circumstances. These three models are referred to as `the Textbook version`, `the Heroic story`, and the `Well then - what now - scenario`.

What is ´the Textbook version´?

This model is positive and represents a smooth process. It starts with opportunities that can be exploited. Something new must be created and developed. The process is designed and consists of different stages that need to be carried out in a chronological time schedule. The plan is then put into action and with good leadership realized. The original purpose will be achieved and the plan´s intentions fulfilled. 

What is ´the Heroic story´?

In this model the process goes between smooth and difficult, but the whole process will still end according to plan. It usually involves a challenging problem which is bigger than initially expected. The competent manager encounters difficulties, but knows which steps to take, and everything ends well. Most managers will describe their efforts according to this model. 

What is the ´Well then - what now - scenario`?

In this model managers find themselves in a problematic situation. It is no longer clear to them how the situation matches the original intentions, or in what stage the process is (what has been completed, what is still going on, what is yet to be accomplished). Managers are tired and overworked. This model is experienced by the managers as the most typical in their everyday work. 

How do the three narratives in the study exemplify the issues and situations that characterize managerial work?

The commonality in the narratives is that something did not turn out as expected in the sense that either something unexpected happened, or what was expected to happen did not. An important characteristic is that the everyday work of the manager is event-driven. In general, the managerial process that follows requires three managerial measures:

• Interpretation. To interpret the situation in order to identify what has happened and to formulate some kind of explanation. The interpretation will point in a certain direction. A large part of managerial work will be these interpretative processes, as having more awareness of a situation increases a manager's ability to deal with it, even though the managers normally cannot actively plan for these situations to happen.  
• Adjustments/choices. Acting in accordance with the earlier interpretation may solve the problem or create others. Certain adjustments and choices must be made, such as allowing more time to communicate or making changes in who needs to be involved. A balance must be made between ethical, practical, and economic considerations and balancing short- and long-term goals. 
• Solution formulation. A solution must be implemented immediately to get things going. A lot of leadership requires finding the right solution for the problems of that particular moment, just to make sure the most important and urgent problems are solved and that the work may continue. Some use the term tinkering, meaning a kind of local or situational logic and opportunism, to use what is at hand to resolve situations and problems.