Article Summary of He is a stud, she is a slut! A meta-analysis on the continued existence of sexual double standards - Endendijk et al. - 2020

What is sexual double standards (SDS)?

Men and women are usually held to distinct standards of appropriate (sexual) behavior. For example, men are socially punished for behaving passively or modestly and women for behaving dominantly or directly. Receiving backlash for breaching social standards can have a bad influence on society and individuals.

Sexual double standards (SDS) refer to the different sexual behaviors that are valued for and expected of women and men. Traditionally, males are expected to be dominant, initiating sexual activity and sexually active. Females are expected to be passive, submissive and reactive. As men have more sexual freedom, they are often treated differently for the same sexual behaviors. Half of the girls have experienced slut-shaming, compared with one-fifth of the boys.

There is an association between SDS and gender differences in sexual risk behavior (men: more partners, women: more reluctance to ask for or insist on using protection) and societal problems (gender inequality, sexism, homophobia).

The research on the extent and continued existence of SDS is inconsistent, but given the negative consequences of SDS for both genders, it is important to investigate whether and to what degree they still exists. To provide answers, a meta-analysis was conducted.

Theoretical framework: under what conditions are SDS present?

Biosocial and evolutionary theory assume the existence of SDS and provide predictions regarding moderators of the strength of SDS, particularly with regard to historical change, cultural differences and the behavioral specificity of SDS. The female and male control theory draws on premises of biosocial and evolutionary theory. The gender-intensification hypothesis is used to make predictions about age differences in SDS.

Evolutionary theories provide rationales for the differences in the evaluations an expectations of women’s and men’s sexual behavior. Gender difference in parental investment are particularly relevant. Biologically, mothers invest more in their kids than fathers. Because of their lower parental investment, there is a lot of competition among men for females. As they are sexually assertive and dominant, it is likely they will be successful. Having sex often and with several partners is more beneficial for men, as it offers them more opportunities to pass their genes on. Women are more selective when it comes to choosing a partner. These evolutionary processes influence how we perceive the sexual behavior of ourselves and others.

Biosocial theory assumes that the different behavorial norms are the result of the societal division in gender roles (men provide, women stay at home). These distinct roles derive from biological differences between women and men. We are expected to behave in accordance with our gender roles. Gender roles are socially constructed and therefore, socialization processes (rewarding, punishing, observing) are important for learning what makes sexual behavior appropriate for women and men.

The female and male control theory integrates sociocultural and evolutionary perspectives to explain gender differences in SDS. According to the male control theory, SDS are considered a male privilege that men want to maintain, as it offers them many advantages. SDS are created by and beneficial for men and suppress women. The female control theory considers female sexuality to have more value, because gender differences in sexual desire result into a higher demand for female sexuality. SDS offer advantages for females, as they can trade sexual favors for parental investment or economic favors.

Evolutionary theories assume that SDS do not differ between countries: they are considered universal. According to biosocial theory, gender roles are the result of culture, SDS could therefore differ between countries. Cross-cultural differences in gender equality can be quantified by the gender inequality index and the global gender gap score. Data obtained through these measures show that Western European and Scandinavian countries have the smallest gender gap and the North American countries have bigger gender gaps. Intermediate levels were observed in Asian and Latin-American countries. The largest gaps were found in North Africa and the Middle East. Biosocial theory assumes that a low level of gender equality relates to more traditional SDS.

When it comes to changes over time, evolutionary theory assumes no changes in SDS over the last 6 decades, because changes happen slowly. Biosocial theory assumes that SDS are less traditional in recent research compared with older research. In the majority of Western societies, the division of gender roles has become less strict in the last decades, which would result into less differences in SDS.   

Biosocial theory and evolutionary theory both make no (direct) assumptions regarding age differences in the existence of SDS. However, gender norm conformity becomes more important during childhood, with the pressure to conform to gender role being the highest in adolescence. This is a phase in which girls and boys become more different due to the convergence of cognitive, biological and social changes (gender-intensification hypothesis). Given the significant developments in the sexuality of adolescents, which is something they evaluate each other on, SDS are expected to be more prevalent in adolescents compared with adults.

What follows from previous findings?

The first (systematic) study of SDS was conducted in 1960, implying that men have more sexual freedom than women. Later research is very inconsistent. Some of the studies found no clear evidence of SDS, while others clearly showed their existence.

Inconsistencies in earlier SDS-research might be caused by differences in measurement, study design and conceptualization. SDS were mostly conceptualized in terms of attitudes and thus how people evaluate men’s and women’s sexual behaviors. In this meta-analysis, SDS were also assessed in terms of individuals’ attitudes and stereotypes and therefore how people expect men and women to behave sexually. Self-report questionnaires were often used in studies. However, these differ in whether they assess the agreement with statements regarding SDS or the evaluation of sexual behavior. Another frequently used type of measurement is the experimental task in which people are asked to evaluate a scenario or vignette that describes the character’s sexual behavior. There were between-subjects designs, wherein the sexual behavior of either a woman or a man was evaluated, and within-subjects designs, wherein the sexual behavior of both genders was evaluated. Studies using within-subjects designs and Likert-type-scale questionnaires were less likely to yield evidence for SDS.

What was tested in the current meta-analysis of SDS?

Two key hypotheses based on biosocial and evolutionary theory were tested:

1. It was expected that people expect more behaviors associated with low sexual activity from women compared to men and more behaviors associated with high sexual activity from men compared to women.
2. It was expected that people evaluate low sexually active women more positively / less negatively compared to low sexually active men and highly sexually active men more positively / less negatively compared to highly sexually active women.

This meta-analysis extends earlier studies by examining the presence and strength of SDS from 1960-2019 and by examining the effect of moderators related to sexual behavior type, publication year, sample, design and measurement and by following a theory-based meta analytic approach.

What are the findings?

In accordance with biosocial and evolutionary theory, the current meta-analysis showed clear evidence for traditional SDS in studies assessing differences in expectation or evaluation. High sexual activity was expected more from males and low sexual activity was expected more from females. Highly sexually active males were evaluated more positively compared to females, and low sexually active females were evaluated more positively compared to males. Studies in which Likert-type-scale questionnaires were used did not yield evidence of SDS.

Several moderator effects were found. The existence of traditional SDS was behavior specific. Compared with attitudes about SDS, stereotypes about SDS were more traditional. Compared to studies in which the ‘double standard scale’ was used, studies in which the ‘sexual double standard scale’ was used reported more traditional SDS. An association was found between high levels of gender equality and less traditional SDS in countries. The moderators publication year, study design, age and gender of the participants were not significant.

When it comes to sexual behavior types, the strongest evidence of sexual double standards was found for victims of sexual coercion, then casual sex and being sexually active from an early age. There was less evidence of SDS for sexual infidelity, premarital sex, level of sexual activity and perpetrators of sexual coercion. Sexual behavior within a power hierarchy was evaluated more negatively for female victims (more damaging to their reputation). This indicates that females might be blamed for being victims of sexual coercion.

Regarding cross-cultural differences in SDS, it was found that in countries with higher levels of gender equality, SDS were less traditional. This is in accordance with biosocial theory.

In accordance with evolutionary theory (and contrary to biosocial theory), it was found that SDS did not change over time. Traditional SDS have been around for decades and do still exist. This might indicate that stable gender differences in reproductive strategies underlie SDS. Although gender roles are now less strict in many Western countries, there was no prove of less differentiation in the norms for the sexual behavior of both gender. As sexuality is a highly private matter, this might take more time.

Regarding gender and age of the participants, no differences were found.

What is the conclusion?

It can be concluded that both biosocial and evolutionary theory provide testable and relevant predictions regarding the existence of SDS. Sexual double standards can be best explained by a hybrid model that includes evolutionary processes related to gender differences in sexual strategies and parental investments, as to the societal division in gender roles.