Parenting practices refer to directly observable specific behaviours that parents use to socialize their children (e.g. supervision with homework). There are two broad dimensions of parenting:

1. Parental support
   This refers to the affective nature of the parent-child relationship. Behaviours involve showing involvement (1), acceptance (2), emotional availability (3), warmth (4) and responsivity (3). This is

Cognition is about 50% - 70% heritable at the population level. Heritability is maximized when people choose their own environments and experiences.

Gene-environment correlation states that people with more similar genes experience more similar environments and vice versa. Transactional models state that early-life behaviours, driven by genetics, lead to a person selecting particular types of environments.

Executive function (EF) refers to the psychological processes involved in the conscious control of thought and action. However, there are several possible definitions:

• Executive function corresponds to planning (1), decision making (2), judgement (3) and self-perception (4).
• Executive function corresponds to inhibitory control.
• Executive function refers to a cognitive module consisting of effector

Children and adolescents who are exposed to victimization face increased risk of diverse negative outcomes by early adulthood (e.g. psychopathology; lower educational and career attainment; inflammatory disease). It could lead to loneliness, which refers to psychological distress associated with perceived shortcomings in one’s social relationships. Individuals vary in their susceptibility to feeling lonely. The heritability of loneliness is

Parent involvement in learning may be essential as parents provide the resources children depend on (1), children spend a substantial time outside of the school environment (2) and parents are a central relationship for children (3).

Parental involvement refers to parents’ commitment of resources to children’s learning. There is a distinction between parental involvement at school

Contrary to most animals, humans communicate cooperatively. Infants (i.e. 10 to 12 months) begin in cooperative communication through the pointing gesture. This form of communication relies on their social-cognitive ability to direct the attention of others and to understand the attention-directing intentions of others.

Skills of intention-reading refer to social-cognitive abilities which are necessary to understand

People do not have innate mechanisms for complex calculations (e.g. math). However, children typically do spontaneously come up with some form of counting without being explicitly taught. It may be that counting knowledge is innate but it is also possible that this develops through imitation and that children, while being able to count, do not know the meaning

It is not clear what through what processes peer rejection lead to internalizing problems and how the teacher can be a protective factor in this. School-age children who experience difficulties in their relationships with peers are at increased risk for psychopathology. Social self-concept act as a mechanism through which peer rejection influences the development of internalizing problems.

Early childhood adversity is common (i.e. 48% - 60%). Early life trauma impacts the developmental trajectory of children and health outcomes over the life course. No experiences with maltreatment and a non-depressed primary caregiver are associated with resilience. Adult health outcomes are influenced by the cumulative incidence of adverse life experiences. Differences in risk are influenced by chronicity