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The 'other form of consciousness' formulated by James is now called 'altered states of consciousness', abbreviated as ASCs. However, this concept is difficult to define. For example, there is the question of whether we should define ASCs objectively or subjectively. If we choose an objective definition, then we are talking about the causes of the changed consciousness. We would then make a definition based on narcotics. A problem, however, is that you do not include the subjective experience in the definition. For example, how can we know if people who are drunk are all reacting in the same way? Is it also possible that the same drugs produce different ASCs?Perhaps it is better to define ASCs in terms of physical variables and behavioral measurements. In this context one can think of heartbeat and the expression of emotions. A problem with such an approach, however, is that few ASCs are associated with unique physical patterns or behavioral changes. For this reason, scientists are still cautious when it comes to giving a definition based on physical processes to the state of consciousness (SoC) to.It is also possible to give ASCs a subjective definition. In practice, this approach is used the most. In these types of definitions, ASCs are described as states in which it feels as if there is a change in the normal pattern of mental functioning. These types of definitions give rise to other problems. ASCs are compared with normal patterns of mental functioning, but what exactly is a normal pattern of mental functioning? In addition, the use of subjective definitions ensures that people's experiences can not be compared properly, because they can not be measured in the same way. What exactly changes when someone experiences an ASC? We can say that consciousness has changed, but what exactly does this mean?...
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The problem of consciousness is related to some of the oldest questions of philosophy: what does the world consist of? Who am I? It relates to the mind-body problem: what is the relationship between the physical and the mental?
Despite the fact that we are learning more and more about the functioning of the brain, consciousness remains a mystery. In the past, they used the term 'élan vital' to explain how non-living things could be made alive. Nowadays this concept is no longer used, since we know that biological processes are responsible for this. Some scientists believe that the same will also happen with the term consciousness. Once we understand how brain processes create a sense of consciousness, then we might not need to use this term anymore.
Consciousness requires some sort of dualism: objectivity vs. subjectivity, inner vs. outer, mind vs. body...
For example: Take a pencil in your hand and look at it. You see the pencil from your own unique perspective, which you cannot share with others. The pencil is part of the outside world, your experience with the pencil is part of your inner world.
The way philosophers view the consciousness problem can generally be divided into monist theories, which suggest that there are one kind of things in the world, and dualist theories, which suggest that there are two kinds of things. Some theories state that the mental world is fundamental and some theories state that the physical world is fundamental.
Monistic theories assume that the world consists of only one kind of matter (body or mind). Some monistic theories state that everything consists of the mind, according to these theories we only have ideas and perceptions of a pencil. We do not know if a pencil really exists. People who assume this are called mentalists or idealists. Berkeley supported this principle. The disadvantage of this perspective is that we can never know for certain whether objects with fixed characteristics exist.
Materialists are also monists. They believe that there is only matter. An example for this is the identity theory, which states that mental experiences are the same as physical experiences. Another example is functionalism, which assumes that mental experiences are the same as functional experiences.
Epiphenomenalism assumes that physical processes cause mental events, but that mental events have no effect on physical events. Huxley was a supporter of this idea. He did not deny that consciousness or subjective experiences existed, but stated that they have no (causal) connection with physical processes. He used
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