Consciousness- Questions and Answers

Online Practice Questions - Consciousness - Blackmore (2^nd  edition)

What's the problem? CH.1

1.1 What is meant by the 'mind-body problem'?

1.2 Which philosophical movement emphasizes the view that there is only matter?
            A: epiphenomenalism
            B: dualism
            C: materialism
            D: panpsychism

1.3a What is meant by the philosophical movement 'dualism'?
1.3b Who is a known proponent of dualism?
1.3c From which two movements does dualism exist?

1.4 From which three parts does the subconscious exist according to Freud?

1.5 What are two well-known names that are linked to behaviorism?
            A: Wundt and Skinner
            B: Skinner and Watson
            C: Wundt and Watson
            D: James and Skinner

What is it like to be a...? CH.2

2.1 Block makes a distinction between which two forms of consciousness?
            A: phenomenality and access awareness
            B: qualia and access awareness
            C: phenomenality and subjectivity
            D: qualia and subjectivity

2.2a What are qualia?
2.2b In what way can the added value of qualia be investigated?

2.3 What does the thought experiment of a zombie involve?

2.4 In which four ways can scientists respond to Chalmers' idea that there is a hard problem when we talk about consciousness?

2.5 What are three possible reasons for ignoring the difficult problem?

How do conscious and unconscious activities differ from each other? CH.3

3.1a From which two visual systems can a distinction be made according to Milner and Goodale?
3.1b Milner and Goodale state that a distinction can be made on the basis of fundamentally different tasks performed by the brain. Which categories do they think play an important role in this?

3.2 In which categories can operations be classified in general?

3.3 Which two representational theories exist and what do these theories mean?

3.4 Who designed the 'global workspace theory' (GWT)?
            A: Libet
            B: Milner and Goodale
            C: Perch
            D: Castello

How can the mind be seen as theater? CH.4

4.1 What is meant by the theater as a metaphor?

4.2 What does 'global workspace theory' (GWT) mean (in terms of the mind as theater)?

4.3 What does the 'neural global workspace' model mean?
            A: The model states that we become aware of an event when neurons
            firing for a certain period of time.
            B: The model represents your joy, worries, ambitions, your sense of personal identity
            and free will are nothing more than the coming together of nerve cells.
            C: The model states that conscious experiences are similar to brain activity.
            D: The model states that unconscious processes are being fought for access
            get to the limited capacity of the memory.

4.4 What is the idea of ​​the multiple drafts model?

4.5a What does Dennett's 'myth of double transduction' theory entail?
4.5b Does this theory involve a Cartesian theater (CT)?

What do attention and timing have to do with consciousness? CH.5

5.1 What idea do bottlenose theories have about attention?

5.2 What is the difference between 'theories of theories' and 'follow-up theories' of attention?

5.3 Who introduced the concept of 'covert attention scanning'?
            A: Libet
            B: James
            C: Helmholz
            D: Dennett

5.4 What is meant by 'the half-second delay of consciousness'?

5.5 What does the 'subjective time displacement phenomenon' mean?

What is meant by 'the great illusion'? CH.6

6.1a What does the 'great illusion' of visual experiences mean?
6.1b What two ideas are about visual experience?

6.2 James states that while looking around, not everything we see can be absorbed in us and that there are holes in the consciousness. What three views are there about filling these holes? Match the vision with the right understanding (for example: A - II).

            Visions:
            A: The brain actually fills in all the details so that there is a complete picture in the
            brain arises.
            B: The brain does not need to fill in holes.
            C: The holes are filled to a higher level of the visual system and this is
            more conceptual in nature, instead of a picture being filled out.

            Terms:
            I: 'symbolic filling-in'
            II: 'skeptical vision'
            III: 'isomorphic filling-in'

6.3 What is meant by 'change blindness'?

What do 'the self' and 'the multiple self' mean? CH.7

7.1a Which two ideas exist about how it is that we feel that there is a 'self' that constantly has all kinds of experiences?

7.1b Which two theories can be linked to this?

7.2 What happens in a 'split brain operation'?

7.3 What are characteristic functions of the right and left hemispheres, respectively?

7.4 What evidence has been provided for the idea of ​​Sperry about the 'interpreter' in the left hemisphere?

Which theories about the self are there? CH.8

8.1 Which aspects belong to the 'empirical self' described by James?
            A: the material self, the social self and subjective experiences
            B: the material self, subjective thoughts and the social self
            C: the social self, subjective experiences and subjective thoughts
            D: the material self, subjective thoughts and subjective experiences

8.2 From which three 'selves' does Damasio make a distinction?

8.3 What is meant by the 'pearl vision' of Strawson?

When is there a question of free will? CH.9

9.1 Damage to which area of ​​the prefrontal cortex can lead to a lack of spontaneous activity and to stereotypic actions?
            A: the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC)
            B: the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC)
            C: the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC)
            D: the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC)

9.2 What does 'readiness potential' mean?

9.3 What were important criticisms about Libet's experiment?

9.4 Wegner states that free will is an illusion created in three steps. Which three steps are these?

9.5 Which criteria must a free choice satisfy according to Wegner?

How do the brain and consciousness interact with each other? CH.10

10.1 In which three groups can drugs be subdivided?

10.2a What does the 'representational theory of consciousness' mean?
10.2b Who has invented the above theory?

10.3 What is the opinion of dualists on the localization of pain?

In what way can consciousness be seen as a unit? CH.11

11.1 What does the 'binding problem' mean?

11.2 What is Zeki's opinion about the unity of consciousness?

11.3 Which part of the brain plays the most important role in multisensory integration?
            A: amygdala
            B: hypothalamus
            C: thalamus
            D: superior colliculus

11.4 Edelman and Tononi distinguish between two different forms of consciousness. Which are these?

11.5 What does the 'dynamic core' mean?

What is the influence of brain damage on consciousness? CH.12

12.1 Which two forms of memory loss generally exist?

12.2a What is the most common cause of the characteristic memory loss in Korsakoff's syndrome?
12.b What form of memory usually remains intact in patients with this syndrome?

12.3 Match the concept with the correct description. For example: A - I.

            Terms:
            A: anosagnosis
            B: Anton's syndrome
            C: hemifield neglect

            I: syndrome in which people do not realize that certain parts of their body
            to become paralyzed
            II: people who think that the left side of what they see does not exist
            III: people who are blind, but who are convinced that they can see

12.4 Name a number of ways in which 'blind vision' can be tested.

What is the connection between evolution and consciousness? CH.13

13.1 Name a number of differences between Darwinism and Lamarckism.

13.2 By whom was the genetics first developed?
            A: Darwin
            B: Flanagan
            C: Mendel
            D: Lamarck

13.3 What is the tenor of panadaptionism?

13.4 Which four visions exist on the relationship between consciousness and evolution?

What views on the function of consciousness are there? CH.14

14.1 What is the vision of panpsychism about the relationship between consciousness and evolution?

14.2a Which three concepts belong to Humphrey's vision?
            A: emergent property, surface feature and inner eye
            B: emeregent property, re-entry and inner eye
            C: surface feature, re-entry and memes
            D: inner eye, emergent property and memes
 
14.2b According to Humphrey, what is the function of consciousness?

14.3 From which factors does group selection of neurons depend on the theory of 'neural darwinism' of Edelman?

14.4 What is Dawkins idea about 'memes'?

How can the consciousness of animals be investigated? CH.15

15.1 On the basis of which three cases can be determined whether an animal suffers pain according to Dawkin?

15.2 Which test is typically used to investigate whether a particular animal has an awareness?

15.3 Which concept is consistent with the following description: 'having convictions, desire and mental states and attributing mental states to other people'?
            A: 'self-awareness'
            B: 'awareness instinct'
            C: 'theory of mind'
            D: 'intentional mind'

15.4 What are the results of research into the teaching of language in animals?

How can a machine be taught intellect? CH.16

16.1a What does Descartes tell about the human body as a machine?
16.1b To what extent did Leibniz agree with the above?

16.2 Between which two types of artificial intelligence does Searle make a distinction?

16.3a What are 'artificial neural networks'?
16.3b Which current is related to the above concept?

What views are there on the consciousness of machines? CH.17

17.1 Which two different views exist as to whether robots have a consciousness?

17.2 What different arguments exist to indicate that machines could never have a consciousness? Name three.

17.3 Which concept fits the criticism given to Searle?
            A: 'brain simulator reply'
            B: the Chinese room
            C: Turing test
            D: both A and B

17.4a What are microtubes?
17.4b What is the relationship between microtubes and consciousness according to the most recent research?

How should a conscious machine be built? CH.18

18.1 What was the name of the first robot that looked like humans?
            A: Kernel
            B: Kurtzweil
            C: Kismet
            D: Kerstil

18.2 What does 'engaged embodiment' mean?

18.3 What five criteria did Aleksander use to make a conscious robot?

18.4 Where is the GOFAI approach for use within the research into consciousness?

18.5 What does the evolutionary theory of memetics involve?

How does unconscious processing work? CH.19

19.1 Between which two types of thresholds do Cheesman and Merikle differentiate?

19.2 Give an example of how research has shown that unconscious perception can be found in the brain.

19.3 Which three parts consist of intuition?

19.4 What is changing emotionally in people with damaged frontal lobes?

How can we distinguish between reality and imagination? CH.20

20.1 What is meant by 'reality monitoring' or 'reality discrimination'?

20.2 Name three characteristics of a hallucination.
20.2b What reasons are there for breaking the direct relationship between hallucination and pathology?

20.3 What does Maury mean by 'hypnagogic images' or 'hypnagogic hallucinations'?

What does the paranormal all encompass? CH.21

21.1 Which two reasons are there to study the paranormal?

21.2 Which three terms belong to the term 'extrasensory perception' (ESP)?

21.3 What term do Rhine and Rhine use when they talk about paranormal activities?
            A: psychokinesis
            B: psi
            C: paracognition
            D: micro-PK

21.4 What happens in remote viewing?

Which drugs affect consciousness and how? CH.22

22.1a What does the abbreviation 'ASC' stand for and what does this mean?
22.1b Who introduced the above concept?

22.2 Farthing states that we have to look at fourteen points if we want to know what exactly changes when someone experiences an ASC. Name five of these factors.

22.3 In which two ways can attention be influenced by an ASC?

22.4 What are the dimensions of the 'AIM model'?

22.5 What effect do anesthetics have on memory?

What do sleep and dreams have to do with consciousness? CH.23

23.1 What difference exists in the EEG associated with REM sleep and the EEG associated with the non-REM sleep?

23.2 Hobson drew up three categories to show that bizarre dreams can take different forms. What are these three categories?

23.3 What can be concluded about the relationship between REM sleep and dreams?

23.4a What is a lucid dream?

23.4b What rebuttal Hearn and LaBerge delivered on the vision that should arise lucid dreaming before or after sleep?

What are examples of 'special human experiences'? CH.24

24.1 Which three visions exist to the question what exceptional human experiences exactly say?

24.2 What are 'OBEs'?

24.3a What are NDEs?

24.3b What does the 'afterlife hypothesis' say about NDEs?

24.4 James states that an experience can be called 'mysticism' if four conditions are met. What are these four conditions?

What does the look look like from the inside? CH.25

25.1 Why is it difficult to call the 'first person approach' scientific?

25.2a What is the difference between the 'A-team' and the 'B-team'?
25.2b Who are supporters of the 'A-team' and of the 'B-team'?
            A: Chalmers is supporter of the A-team and Denett is a supporter of the B-team
            B: Denett is a supporter of the A-team and Chalmers is a supporter of the B-team
            C: Chalmers and Denett are both supporters of the A-team
            D: Chalmers and Denett are both supporters of the B-team

25.3 What does Husserl mean by the term 'epoché'?

25.4 Varela provided a simple diagram to understand the place of neurophenomenology in science. This diagram consists of the four directions in which theories can be about consciousness. What are these four directions?

25.5 What does 'heterophenomenology' mean?

What is known about the effect of meditation and mindfulness? CH.26

26.1 With which two sentences can meditation be summarized?

26.2 What are the two basic principles (basic methods) of meditation?

26.3a How is 'mindfulness' defined?
26.3b From which current is mindfulness coming?

26.4 The answer to the question 'how meditation helps us to learn more about consciousness? "Depends on the reasons why people meditate. What three reasons are they?

26.5 What does the 'Maharishi effect' mean?

What visions are there on 'awakening'? CH.27

27.1 In what ways does Buddhism differ from other religions?

27.2 What does 'samsara' stand for?

27.3 What is meant by 'awakening'?

27.4a What do Buddhists mean by 'annatta'?
27.4b Explain why this concept fits so well with Buddhism.

Answers

CH. 1

1.1 The 'mind-body problem' reflects the problem concerning the relationship between the physical and the mental. The problem of consciousness is related to this problem: what does the world consist of? To what extent does consciousness consist of physical components and to what extent of mental?

1.2 Answer C; materialism. Materialism is a movement within monism. Supporters of this theory state that there is only matter.

1.3a Theories that are bound to dualism state that the world consists of two things: the body and the mind.

1.3b The most famous dualist is René Descartes.

1.3c Dualism consists of the characteristic dualism and the substance dualism. The feature-dualism states that the same thing can be described by means of mental terms or physical terms, but that one description can not be reduced to the other. The substance-dualism is concerned with the question of how the body and the mind interact with each other, while it concerns two different substances.

1.4 From (1) the 'id' (the biological desires and needs), (2) the 'ego' (all kinds of defense mechanisms), and (3) the 'superego' (all unacceptable desires and needs that would be expressed according to Freud in dreams).

1.5 Answer B; Skinner and Watson. Watson was influenced by Pavlov and Skinner focused on operant conditioning.
CH. 2

2.1 Answer: A; phenomenality and access awareness. Phenomenality means: listening to what people report about conscious experiences. According to Block, access consciousness has the ability to reason and also to lead speech and actions.

2.2a Qualia are private qualities, the way someone experiences an experience. The term is used to emphasize quality so as not to talk about physical characteristics or descriptions, but about the experience itself.

2.2b This can be investigated using thought experiments.

2.3 The thought experiment of a zombie involves the question of whether zombies (someone who looks exactly the same as you have no consciousness) exist. Two reactions are possible on this: (1) yes, such a zombie can exist (this reaction is based on conscious inessentialism); and (2) no, such a zombie can not exist.

2.4 Chalmers states that these reactions can be divided into four different categories:
(1) thehard problem is unsolvable,
(2) the hard problem is to solve,
(3) it is essential to first solve the easy questions, and
(4) there is no problem at all.

2.5 O'Hara and Scutt mention three reasons to ignore the hard problem

    We know how to deal with the easy problems and that is why we should focus on those problems.

    They think that solving the easy problems will change our ideas about the hard problem.

    Finally, they argue that solving the hard problem is only necessary if we are certain that there is such a problem as a problem. We can not yet draw that conclusion, since the problem is not yet sufficiently understood.

CH. 3

3.1a The visual systems according to Milner and Goodale (1) are visual perception; and (2) visual-motor control.

3.1b These two categories are (1) rapid visual motor control; and (2) less urgent visual perception.

3.2 Acts can generally be divided into the following five categories:
(1) actions that are always unaware,
(2) actions that can be consciously controlled,
(3) actions that are first carried out consciously, but are performed unconsciously over time,
(4) actions that can be carried out both consciously and unconsciously and
(5) actions that always have to be carried out consciously.
3.3 The two representational theories are (1) high-order perception (higher order perceptive, HOP); and (2) high-order thought (higher-order theory of thought, HOT). According to HOP, being aware of a mental condition means monitoring the mental state. HOT states that consciousness is about having a thought about the situation.

3.4 Answer C; Perch.
CH. 4

4.1 This metaphor was suggested by Hume. He states that the mind is a kind of theater where different perceptions appear, pass by, come back again and mix in different situations. Denett also described the 'Cartesian theater' (CT), which means that we feel that our 'I' is somewhere in our head. At that place also conscious images come in and when they come together, then there is consciousness.

4.2 Global workspace theory (GWT) covers the idea that conscious events take place in the theater of consciousness. Baars, the founder of this theory, states that the consciousness in the theater serves as a spotlight on stage. With the spotlight attention is focused on different actors (the events in the outside world) so that we are aware of these events.

4.3 Answer D; the model states that unconscious processes are being fought to gain access to the limited capacity of the working memory. This working memory probably works thanks to an extensive network of different brain areas. Information that has gained access can thus be extensively passed on to other areas of the brain.

4.4 The multiple drafts model states that all mental activities (perceptions, emotions and thoughts) in the brain arise through parallel processes in different brain routes. These processes ensure that sensory input can be interpreted.

4.5a The 'myth of double transduction' means that no use can be made of an 'I' that distinguishes between what someone will be aware of or unaware of. There are only multiple designs of feelings, thoughts and perceptions with which the brain works.

4.5b In this theory there is no question of a Cartesian theater (CT), since Dennett does not believe in the comparison of consciousness with a theater and an accompanying audience. In addition, he states that subjectivity should not be seen in terms of what the "I" experiences. Yet he has a view on the issue of subjectivity.
CH. 5

5.1 'Bottle halo theories' are seen as bottlenecks, where pre-conscious sensory filters were needed to decide what should be passed on to deeper stages of processing.

5.2 Theories of causation state that consciousness leads the attention processes as it were and that this is the greatest function of consciousness. Consequential theories state that if attention is paid to something, it will end up in consciousness.

5.3 Answer C; Helmholz. He proved that it is possible to look at the one object, but to focus attention elsewhere. This is also called 'covert attention scanning'.

5.4 Libet carried out experiments showing that there should be about half a second of neural activity to cause consciousness. This is also called 'half-second delay'. He states on the basis of this that an experience is only conscious when it lasts for at least half a second.

5.5 The 'subjective time displacement phenomenon' means that when you ask participants to determine the relative timing of auditory or visual stimuli, people make mistakes when determining which event happened first.
CH. 6

6.1a The term 'great illusion' arose as a result of research into 'changing blindness' and 'inattentional blindness'. The term 'the great illusion' stands for the idea that the richness of our visual world is an illusion.

6.1b The first idea is that there is a stream of conscious visual impressions that must be explained. The second idea is that seeing means having internal mental pictures; the idea that the visual world is represented in our heads.

6.2 Answers: A - III, B - II, C - I.

6.3 Research shows that people often do not notice changes in pictures when they have to make an eye movement, for example when they first have to look at a picture on the left and then look at a picture on the right. This is called 'change blindness'.
CH. 7

7.1a These two ideas are:

    there is such a thing as a self that has all kinds of experiences and makes decisions, and

    it seems as if there is a self, but in reality this is not the case.

7.1b The 'egotheories' originate from the first vision and the 'bundle theories' originate from the second vision.

7.2 The 'split brain operation' is an opratietechniek in which the passage (s) between both hemispheres is cut. This operation was performed, for example, to reduce symptoms of epilepsy.

7.3 Research shows that verbal skills are mainly in the left hemisphere and that the right hemisphere is mainly responsible for facial recognition.

7.4 Research shows that if the left hemisphere of a person is removed, the consciousness of this person is then retained.
CH. 8

8.1 Answer A; the material self (consisting of the body, clothes, possessions, family and friends), the social self (someone's reputation and what image others have of that person and how he reacts to it) and subjective experiences (which source of attention and effort is ).

8.2 Damasio distinguishes the 'proto self' (consisting of a set of neural patterns that store the state of an organism at any time), the 'core-self' (involving the 'core-consciousness', a form of consciousness which does not depend on memory or language skills) and the 'autobiographical self' (depending on personal memories).

8.3 Strawson stated that there are many mental selves that alternate themselves at different times, just like pearls on a chain. According to this view, selves really exist, but they are not separate entities. The selves represent different patterns of neural activity or states of activation that come and go.
CH. 9

9.1 Answer D, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC).

9.2 Since 1960 it is known that the 'readiness potential' (RP) precedes voluntary movements. The readiness potential represents a negative charge in the electrical potential that can be measured with electrodes applied to the skull before operations are performed.

9.3 Important criticisms on Libet's experiment were:

    There was doubt about the way of measuring the will, the conscious intention. It is impossible to generalize the results found to other actions, because the subjects in the experiment could not choose the actions, only the moment of the action.

    There was doubt about the method of backwards referral.

    Moreover, some researchers suggested that awareness of one's own actions coincides with events after the intention and preparation, but before the motor command is sent.

9.4 These three steps are:

 1. First, our brain plans and executes actions;

  2. After that we become aware of our thoughts about the actions and this is what we ourselves call an intention;

   3. Finally, the action is performed after the intention.

9.5 A free choice must meet the following criteria:
(1) the thought must precede the action,

(2) the thought must correspond to the action, and

(3) the thought must have no other causes (except free will).
CH. 10

10.1 Drugs are divided into the following three groups:

(1) drugs that weaken responsiveness,

(2) drugs that cause memory loss, and

(3) drugs that function as muscle relaxants.

10.2a The 'representational theory of consciousness' states that states of consciousness occur when someone is in a certain cognitive state. When someone is aware of something, a mental representation is accompanied by a higher order representation that requires the functioning of NMDA synapses.

10.2b The theory was conceived by Flohr.

10.3 According to dualists, pain can not be located, since pain is in the mind.
CH. 11

11.1 The 'binding problem' concerns the question of how the brain can bundle all sorts of separate details that we observe into one object.

11.2 Zeki doubts whether there is a unity of consciousness. He believes that there are many micro-consciousnesses. According to him, the visual system consists of many separate and specialized systems that function in parallel.

11.3 Answer D; superior colliculus in the midbrain.

11.4 According to Edelman and Tononi, there is a primary consciousness (which is common in animals) and a higher order consciousness (a form of consciousness that would have developed at a later stage of evolution).

11.5 The dynamic core is a large functional cluster that always changes, but still maintains continuity and integration, because there are connections with the rest of the system.
CH. 12

12.1 A rough distinction can be made between the following two types of memory loss:

1. anterograde amnesia

2. reterograde amnesia

12.2a Korsakoff's syndrome is caused by the toxic effects of alcohol and a deficiency of thiamine, which is caused by malnutrition.

12.2b In the case of Karsakoff's syndrome, episodic memory remains intact for periods of time in the past.

12.3 Answers: A - I, B - III, C - II.

12.4 People can make eye movements if they see stimuli, point to the location of objects and imitate the movement of objects presented in the blind field.
CH. 13

13.1 Lamarck believed that evolution always means progress, while Darwin does not assume this. In addition, Darwin does not believe that there is an internal force that provokes this progress, as proposed by Lamarck.

13.2 Answer C; Mendel, this doctrine is also known as the Laws of Mendel.

13.3 Panadaptionism states that many properties are not adaptations and are not optimal for the organism, but are still transmitted. Possibly they had previously been optimal for the organism. Another possibility is that some traits are influenced by coincidences and physical limitations.

13.4 The four visions on the relationships between consciousness and evolution are:
1. Epiphenomenalism: consciousness-sensuality. (according to this view, zombies are possible);
2. the view that consciousness has an adaptive function;
3. the view that consciousness has an independent function;
4. the view that consciousness is an illusion.
CH. 14

14.1 Pan psychologists believe that consciousness was already present before evolution took place. The complexity of consciousness could, however, have been developed according to this vision.

14.2a Answer A; emergent property (the consciousness stands for a combination of factors), surface feature (one thing that has natural selection influences) and inner eye (the idea that man has an 'inner eye' that gives an idea of ​​the brain activity of a person ).

14.2b Humphrey states that consciousness is a model of the brain over the brain. According to him, only intelligent and social organisms have a consciousness. According to him, the route is a kind of route of self-reflection of the brain.

14.3 Group selection of neurons according to this theory depends on:
1. 'developmental selection'
2. 'experimental selection'
3. 're-entry'.

14.4 Dawkin stated that 'memes' can serve as a kind of 'replicator', just like genes. They also have to deal with variation and selection. Memes are passed on by means of imitation, learning and reading. Old memes are also used to produce new memes. This means that culture can be seen as an evolutionary process based on memes.
CH. 15

15.1 Based on the following three issues:
(1) the general state of health of the animal,
(2) the physiology of the animal; and
(3) the behavior of the animal.
15.2 The 'mirror self reflection (MSR) test', a mirror test. It is then examined whether animals can recognize themselves in the mirror.
15.3 Answer C; theory of mind (TOM).

15.4 Animals do have some understanding of grammar, because they can understand the difference in meaning between two sentences. However, there is still a big difference between the way in which monkeys and people use language. Monkeys are not intrinsically motivated to use the learned sign language. They only use what they have learned when they need something. Children use language skills for many more reasons.
CH. 16

16.1a Descartes believed that the human body is a machine, but that this machine alone can not provide voice and rational thought. Rational thinking could be the result of the workings of consciousness. However, a spirit is needed for this.
16.1b Leibniz disagreed with Descartes who claimed that the mind can influence the brain. Instead, he proposed a thought experiment in which he imagined that there would be a conscious machine that a man could fit into.

16.2 Searle distinguishes between 'strong AI' and 'weak AI'.

16.3a Artificial neural networks (ANN) are statistical learning algorithms that are inspired by biological neural networks and used to estimate functions. ANNs are used among other things to imitate human human cells.

16.3b The connectionism.
CH. 17

17.1 These two different views are provided by functionalism and inessentialism. According to functionalism, robots have a consciousness because they can perform certain tasks as robots. According to functionalists, consciousness is related to acting. According to this view, consciousness is not a cause of task performance. An inessentialist does not believe that machines or robots can have a consciousness because there is no inner experience with machines.

17.2 There are several arguments to indicate that machines can never have a consciousness. Examples of this are:

    On the basis of religion it could be said that God only gave a consciousness to man.

    It is also possible to say that robots have no consciousness, because only living organisms can have a consciousness.

    A third argument against the consciousness of machines is that for some things a consciousness is needed and that machines can not perform these things because they have no consciousness

17.3 Answer A; 'Brain simulator reply'. This means that there can be a program that can simulate the way neurons fire in Chinese brains.

17.4a Microtubes are proteins that resemble tubules and can be found in almost all cells of the body. Through these microtubes we would feel that we have a self and a free will.

17.4b Research has found no evidence that microtubes have anything to do with consciousness. Moreover, it is suspected that effects from one microtube can not be transferred to the other microtube to explain the unity of consciousness.

CH. 18

18.1 Answer C; Kismet.

18.2 The concept of 'engaged embodiment' was introduced by Stuart. 'Engaged embodiment' consists of purposeful animation, perception, imagination and the ability to recognize experiences as own experiences.

18.3 These five criteria are:

    perception of themselves in an 'out there world';

    imagination of the past and fiction;

    attention;

    plan;

    emotions.

18.4 The GOFAI approach has been used to program computers with the right rules. The GOFAI approach has also tried to teach robots language. The problem here is that natural languages ​​do not always follow certain rules.

18.5 According to memetics, if organisms imitate each other, they then evolve. This could mean that if imitation occurs, languages ​​can arise spontaneously. The same thing would happen if machines can imitate each other.

CH. 19

19.1 Cheesman and Merikle distinguished between an objective threshold value (the level of detection by which a distinction is made between perceptual information on the basis of random phenomena) and a subjective threshold value (the value at which participants say that they could not distinguish between perceptual information and that their answers come from random phenomena. ).

19.2 Brain scans show that unconscious perception can be found in the brain. Unconsciously perceived images of frightened faces lead to more activity in the amygdala compared to happy faces.

19.3 These three components are:
1. cognitive processes (processes by which the brain derives information from complex patterns and guide behavior);
2. social skills;
3. emotion.

19.4 People with damaged frontal lobes become very superficial on an emotional level. This ensures that they become indecisive. They find it difficult to make choices about the smallest things. They can rationally weigh alternatives, but they lack in-depth emotions. Because of this they can not sense which choice is right.
CH. 20

20.1 Reality monitoring (or reality discrimination) is our ability to distinguish between the outside world and what is going on in our heads.

20.2a A hallucination is an experience that:
(1) occurs in the absence of a stimulus,
(2) has a great influence on the real perception, and
(3) can not be voluntarily controlled.

20.2b First, it is not clear how hallucinations can be distinguished from other experiences and secondly, hallucinations are common in the population. Third, there are cultural differences in attitudes to hallucinations. In many cultures, hallucinations are valued because it could be closer to ghosts or gods.

20.3 We often have hallucinations just when we almost fall asleep. Maury called these hallucinations 'hypnagogic images' or 'hypnagogic hallucinations'.

CH. 21

21.1 These two reasons are:

    paranormal experiences are common and many people believe in it;

    when paranormal experiences occur they have many implications for science as a result.

21.2 'Extrasensory perception' (ESP) covers three types of communication that require no senses. These three types of communication are:

    telepathy (information is passed on from one person to another);

    clairvoyance (in this case information comes from objects or events that are remote);

    precognition (information coming from the future).

21.3 Answer B; psi.

21.4 In 'remote viewing' it is the case that someone (the target) for example goes to a randomly selected location and looks around for a while. Meanwhile another person (subject) is going to sit down and relax. This person tells you which impressions or images come to him or her. Afterwards the test person tries to match the impressions with a set of possible target locations and to choose the right one.
CH. 22

22.1a 'ASC' stands for 'altered states of consciousness', it represents the changed states of consciousness.

22.1b This concept was introduced by James.

22.2 Correct answers are: (1) attention, (2) perception, (3) imagination and fantasy,
(4) inner speech, (5) memory, (6) thought processes of high level, (7) meaning,
(8) time perception, (9) emotions and expression, (10) alertness, (11) self-control,
(12) suggestibility, (13) body image, and (14) sense of personal identity.

22.3 Attention can be influenced by an ASC in two ways. First of all, attention can be directed inwards or outwards. An ASC can also ensure that attention is experienced very broadly or is very limited.

22.4 AIM is the abbreviation for the three dimensions that make up this model:

(1) 'Activation energy': is equal to arousal and can be measured, for example by EEG,

(2) 'Input source': can vary between mere ecterne or purely internal sources of information.

(3) 'Mode': the ratio of amines in comparison to cholines.

22.5 Anesthetics ensure that working memory, episodic memory and semantic memory are disturbed.

CH. 23

23.1 During REM sleep, the EEG pattern resembles that of someone who is awake, while during the non-REM sleep long, but slow waves can be seen on the EEG.

23.2 These categories are:

(1) 'incongruity' means the non-matching of characteristics of characters, objects, actions or settings; (2) 'discontinuity': sudden changes in the above elements; (3): 'uncertainty': explicit vagueness.

23.3 The REM phase does not appear to be necessary (but not always sufficient) to dream
In addition, REM sleep can occur if people do not (can) dream.

23.4a With a lucid dream, you know that you are dreaming while dreaming.

23.4b During REM sleep, the muscles are paralyzed, so that someone can not say that he is experiencing a lucid dream. Hearne and LaBerge discovered that someone can make eye movements during REM sleep. Lucid dreams often arise when there is a lot of alertness during REM sleep, but also when there are pauses in the breathing and small changes in the heart rate.
CH. 24

24.1 There are roughly three different answers to this:

1. There are people who believe that people lie with these experiences or come up with things or that these experiences are side effects of brain processes.

2. Then there are people who use EHEs to indicate that materialism is wrong and that the paranormal and the soul exist.

3. Finally, there are people who consider these experiences as normal and try to understand them without using terms like God and spirits.

24.2 The abbreviation 'OBE' stands for 'out-of-body experiences', events in which someone feels that he is outside himself and looks at the world.

24.3a The abbreviation 'NDE' stands for 'nearly dead experiences', almost death experiences.

24.3b Many people grasp the existence of NDEs to prove that there is a soul that can leave the body and survive on its own. This is called the 'afterlife hypothesis'.
24.4 These conditions are: (1) not being able to retell it in words ('ineffability'),

(2) 'neotic', (3) transience, and (4) passivity.

CH. 25

25.1 The 'first person approach' does not look at how people perceive things subjectively. This can not be measured objectively and can not be reproduced. The existence of the 'first person approach' can be disputed anyway, since at the moment you say something your description will already be data for third person science.

25.2a Supporters of the 'B-team' see science as a matter of consciousness that differs from all other forms of science, because there must be a connection between data from the third person and data from the first person. Supporters of the 'A-team' think it is as if a subjective experience is more than an objective event.

25.2b Answer B; Denett is a supporter of the A-team and Chalmers is a supporter of the B-team.

25.3 Husserl states that people have to memorize their learned ideas and previous convictions; especially those who deal with the relationship between the external world and individual experiences. He called this process epoché.

25.4 These directions are: (1) functionalism, (2) reductionism, (3) mysterianism and (4) phenomenology.
25.5 Heterophenomenology is about studying things that other people experience.

CH. 26

26.1 Meditation can be summarized as: (1) not thinking, but (2) having attention.
26.2 There are two ways in which meditation can be achieved; namely by means of:

(1) open methods and (2) concentration methods.
26.3a Mindfulness is defined as 'maximizing the activity of breathing and clarity of consciousness' or 'giving attention in a certain way with the aim of living in the here and now without judgment'.

26.3b Mindfulness meditation is derived from Buddhism, in particular the method 'skikantaza', which means 'sit alone'.
26.4 Three reasons why people meditate are:
(1) religious or ritual reasons (for example, believe that you go to heaven through meditation),
(2) reduce stress, improve personal skills and live better, and
(3) seeking insight, whether it is done in a religious or mystical context. This chapter is about the last two reasons.
26.5 The 'Maharishi effect' means that if sufficient people meditate together in the same place, that their combined consciousness can ensure that people in that environment live peacefully.

CH. 27

27.1 In contrast to other religions, Buddhism knows no god, creator or soul. Buddhism is mainly about the individual who has to come to enlightenment. In addition, Buddhism has no truths that must be believed in particular.

27.2 In Buddhism, 'samsara' stands for a continuous circle of birth and death. This has to do with the origins of suffering. We suffer because we cling to things we love and we reject things that we dislike. In this way we become trapped in a cycle of being and becoming, called samsara.

27.3 'Awakening' is described as the end point of a long spiritual journey. It also happens that people say that they have 'awakened' and that this 'awakening' is the beginning of their spiritual journey.

27.4a Buddhism is based on 'annatta', which means 'no self'.

27.4b Buddhists do not state that the self does not exist, but that the self is conditioned and temporary as everything is. Buddha states that the perception of the self creates egoism and attachment to the world. He also says that it can not do things by itself: there are actions and consequences, but the person who performs them does not exist.