Sexology and Sexuality

Who was Alfred Kinsey?

Alfred Kinsey (1894-1856) was a biologist and sexologist whose research became a worldwide source of information about human sexuality and new standards for sex research. He reoriented the field and moved it away from the medical model to one encompassing a variety of disciplines. His research was foundational to the field of sexology and has influenced social and cultural values all over the world.

What did science on sexuality look like in the beginning of the twentieth century?

The modern study of sexuality began in the nineteenth century and was mostly dominated by physicians. Only a few physicians had specialized knowledge on sexual topics other than sexually transmitted diseases, but they were still viewed as the authority when it came to human sexuality. It was assumed that physicians should be the experts regarding sexual activities, since they were the experts on body functions.

How did Kinsey go into the field of sexology?

Kinsey was a broad-based scientist at a time when there was plenty of money available for research. He was a person who was not inhibited by body functions and who was very open about talking about sex. To him it represented a new field where little was known and much could be learned. He started gathering information and interviewing his students at the time, which led to resistance around him. He had to choose between teaching and researching and chose the latter. He then spent his time doing thousands of interviews and collecting information about premarital intercourse, frequency of sexual activity and number of partners.

What is Alfred Kinsey´s legacy?

Alfred Kinsey´s legacy can be summarized in the following points:

• He changed the nature of sexual studies.
• He forced a reexamination of public attitudes toward sex.
• He challenged the medical and psychiatric establishment to reassess its own views.
• He influenced the feminist movement and the gay and lesbian movement.
• He built a library and an institution devoted to sex research.

What is this study about?

As children grow up, they naturally begin to explore and develop their sexuality. This process typically starts with less intimate behaviors like kissing and progresses to more intimate behaviors such as oral sex or intercourse. However, as these behaviors become more intimate, they also come with risks. Engaging in unprotected sex can lead to negative health outcomes such as sexually transmitted infections (STIs) or unwanted pregnancy. Additionally, in today's digital era, young people face new risks related to online sexual behaviors.

Sexual risk behavior refers to behaviors that increase the chances of unintended pregnancy or STI transmission, including HIV. However, measuring these behaviors is challenging due to survey constraints. Researchers often focus on limited indicators like condom use or number of partners, assuming they represent other risky behaviors. To understand the actual risk level, multiple factors like partner type, specific behaviors, and frequency of sex should be considered. It's important to explore risk reduction strategies, like monogamy, although there's still a risk of infection if a partner has an STI. Research on these strategies among young Europeans is limited, as most studies focus on high-risk groups. Studies on unplanned pregnancy risk primarily emphasize contraceptive use, neglecting other factors. Assessing risk requires considering multiple factors, including the "unmet need for family planning" indicator, which monitors conditions like being sexually active without contraception or a desire to delay future children. However, this indicator is mainly studied among married or partnered women and less among adolescents.

Studies examining the risk of unplanned pregnancy among young people typically focus on contraceptive use but often overlook these other conditions. It is assumed that young people are fertile and do not intend to get pregnant, without considering the desires and intentions of emerging adults (18-24 years old). Additionally, some adolescents may temporarily abstain from sex or only engage in same-sex relationships, eliminating the risk of pregnancy. Comprehensive measures of contraceptive use should include a range of methods, including intrauterine devices (IUDs), as their usage is increasing among women and girls in Europe. Contraceptive compliance, especially with short-acting contraceptives, should also be considered, as some users do not consistently use them.

In the digital age, sexual behaviors are not limited to offline interactions. Online sexual risk behavior typically refers to sexting (sending and receiving sexual images and messages) or seeking sexual partners online through dating applications. While these behaviors are not inherently risky, they can have negative emotional outcomes. Sexting, for instance, can lead to invasion of privacy, embarrassment, and negative emotional effects if private images are shared without consent. Meeting sexual partners online has been associated with risks such as non-consensual sex or increased STI transmission.

This paper analyzes data from a Dutch survey called "Sex under the age of

What was studied for this article?

Female mammals, such as many other animals, experience increased sexual activity during estrus. However, women do not exhibit a clear heat period and their sexual activity is not significantly influenced by the different phases of the menstrual cycle. Studies have found low correlations between sex hormones and subjective/objective measures of sexual arousal in women. Some research suggests that sexual desire may increase around the presumed ovulation phase or the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle. However, hormonal influences on female sexuality are challenging to demonstrate due to various factors, including constant male sexual interest, contraceptive use, and methodological difficulties in assessing cycle phases. Other influences, including psychosocial factors, may play a significant role in female sexual experience.

The study described in this article aimed to investigate the correlation between sexual behavior and hormonal status in women with ovulation. The study involved a group of heterosexual women who were invited to participate and met specific criteria, excluding pregnant or postpartum women, those taking hormone therapy or contraceptives, and those with certain medical conditions. The study aimed to understand the relationship between hormones and sexual behavior in women.

How did the study go?

The study began with a screening phase in which women with regular menstrual cycles and ovulation were included. Sonography was used to confirm ovulation by detecting the dominant follicle. Interviews were conducted to collect information on sexual history and exclude women with sexual dysfunction. The Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) and Female Sexual Distress Scale (FSDS) were used to assess sexual function and distress.

In the study phase, participants were given diary cards to report their daily sexual activity throughout the menstrual cycle. Women were instructed to complete the diary cards daily, and on average, they returned 31.5 daily reports. Blood samples were taken at specific times during the menstrual cycle to measure hormone levels, including estradiol, progesterone, total testosterone, and sex hormone-binding globulin.

Statistical analysis was performed to determine if there were changes in the frequency of sexual activity related to the phase of the menstrual cycle. The analysis included factors such as women with a partner vs. singles. The Bonferroni method was used for multiple comparisons. Spearman's correlation coefficient was used to correlate sexual activity with hormone levels. Multivariate analysis was conducted to examine if factors like age, body mass index, age of menarche, parity, or smoking influenced sexual activity.

The statistical analysis was performed using specific software packages for biostatistics and regression analysis.

What were the results

Gender and sexuality are interconnected and extensively studied topics in sexology. Research on gender and homosexuality shows that there is a complex and variable relationship between gender and sexual orientation. The study of intersex, gender dysphoria, and transgenderism also demonstrates the complexity of gender. However, most studies focus on gender in relation to men and women in heterosexuality, as it is a fundamental and interdependent aspect. The term "heterogender" has been proposed to describe the asymmetrical stratification of the sexes within patriarchal heterosexuality. However, studying gender in heterosexuality presents challenges in sex research. In this essay, the author identifies and discusses difficulties in treating gender in sex research, presenting evidence and a process-oriented perspective on gendered sexual behavior. The aim is to highlight the importance of gender in understanding sexuality, view gender and sexuality as ongoing social processes, and emphasize the need for a nuanced and balanced approach to studying gender in sex research.

What is the connection between gender and sex?

One difficulty in sex research is the confusion between the terms "gender" and "sex." Originally, "gender" was used to describe cultural femininity and masculinity, while "sex" referred to biological males and females. However, over time, "gender" has been increasingly used to simply refer to concrete men and women. This shift has led to the misuse of the term, often with a biological determinist perspective. The meaning of "gender" continues to be a subject of debate among feminists. Additionally, there has been a shift from modern to postmodern approaches, emphasizing performativity and diversity. In this essay, the terms "sex" and "gender" are used interchangeably to address the overall division between male and female, while applying each term where specifically relevant.

What is the connection between gender and sexuality?

A second difficulty in understanding gender and sexuality is the prevalent view that gender determines sexuality, despite arguments for a mutually influential relationship. Throughout history, gender has been prioritized over sexuality, with a few exceptions. However, scholars now assert that gender and sexuality are inherently interdependent and mutually informing. The relationship between gender and heterosexuality is particularly strong and reciprocal. This relationship is characterized as dynamic, fluid, and patterned, with a metaphor of a shoreline, where gender represents the land (greater fixity) and sexuality represents the sea (greater fluidity). This metaphor captures the ever-changing interconnectedness, influenced by biological, institutional, and ideological factors. However, the metaphor may not fully account for individual agency and daily interactions in shaping gender and sexuality.

What areas has science focused on when it comes to mental health issues among sexual minorities?

Three different literatures need to be mentioned that have focused on identifying risk factors that put sexual minorities at risk when it comes to mental health problems:

• Psychiatric epidemiology
• Social generation of stigma through stress
• General psychological processes

Why is it important to integrate these literatures?

There is a need for a framework with psychological pathways that link stigma-related stressors to adverse mental health outcomes. This framework should take into account group-specific stressors as well as general psychological processes. Exclusive focus on any of these processes without considering their interrelationships hinders the development of effective theory of the determinants of mental health disparities among sexual minorities and prevention and intervention efforts.

What are the three hypotheses proposed by the psychological mediation framework?

The psychological mediation framework (PMF) is theoretically based on transactional definitions of stress, stating that both environmental and response components of stress are important in determining health outcomes. It proposes the following hypotheses:

• Sexual minorities face increased exposure to stress due to stigma.
• This stigma-related stress leads to increases (relative to heterosexuals) in general coping/emotion regulation, social/interpersonal, and cognitive processes that cause risk for psychopathology.
• These processes, in turn, mediate the relationship between stigma-related stress and psychopathology.

What is minority stress theory?

Minority stress theory (MST) describes how societal stressors contribute to differences in mental health in LGBT populations. The minority stress theory suggests that difficult social situations cause stress in minority individuals, which builds up over time, resulting in long-term health

Intersectionality is a concept that explores how different social identities, such as race, class, and gender, interact and shape individuals' experiences of privilege and oppression. It originated from black feminist thought as a way to understand the unique challenges faced by black women. Over time, the concept has evolved to encompass various social identity structures beyond race, class, and gender.

Contemporary meanings of intersectionality encompass multiple dimensions of social relations and subject formations, and it has become an interdisciplinary field of study that integrates different disciplines. Intersectionality can also be seen as an epistemological perspective or research paradigm.

Intersectional research on marketplace diversity differs from traditional diversity research in several ways. Traditional research often treats social identity structures as independent variables, while intersectional research recognizes their interdependence. Methodologically, intersectional research emphasizes the inclusion of multiple perspectives through ethnographic approaches and historical analysis. The goals of intersectional research go beyond including overlooked groups and aim to identify the historical and structural mechanisms of social domination, proposing plans for social change.

Understanding intersectionality has implications for diversity research, marketing, and advocacy. It encourages a more comprehensive examination of social advantages and disadvantages experienced by individuals across various social identity structures. It also highlights the need to consider historical and structural forces that contribute to inequalities. Intersectionality can inform strategies for promoting diversity, equity, and inclusion in various domains, such as academia, business, and social activism.

The development of healthy romantic relationships and sexuality is a lifelong process that begins with romantic feelings and sexual experimentation early in life. During adolescence and young adulthood, individuals explore these aspects of their lives, and social contexts and interpersonal relationships with parents, peers, and partners play a significant role in shaping their experiences. This special issue aims to advance our understanding of how romantic relationships and sexuality develop in the context of these social domains.

How have perspectives in the field changed?

In the past, romantic relationships and sexual activities of youth were often seen as risky behaviors associated with negative outcomes. However, there has been a shift in perspective towards viewing these experiences as normative tasks in adolescent development. Research has shown that early romantic relationships and sexual activity are prevalent among teenagers in Western countries, indicating their expected behavior patterns.

This change in perspective has led to a focus on understanding how most adolescents develop their romantic relationships and sexuality in a normative way, rather than solely identifying factors that prevent involvement in such relationships. This shift has also allowed for the identification of truly risky versus normative developmental trajectories, leading to a better understanding of young people's educational and healthcare needs.

Furthermore, the ecological perspective highlights the importance of socio-contextual factors in shaping adolescent behaviors and relationships. Research has demonstrated the significant role of parents, peers, and partners in influencing romantic relationships and sexual development. Attachment theory suggests that adolescents' relationships with their parents influence their later relationships with romantic partners. Friendships also play a crucial role in developing skills and expectations for romantic relationships. Additionally, characteristics of romantic partners themselves, such as personality traits and self-esteem, contribute to the quality of adolescents' romantic relationships.

In terms of sexual development, a positive and supportive relationship with parents has been found to be protective and associated with delayed initiation of sexual behavior and safer sexual practices. Peers' sexual norms, especially descriptive norms, have been shown to influence adolescents' own sexual activity. The role of romantic partners in adolescents' sexual behaviors is still an area that requires further research.

Overall, this shift towards a normative perspective and recognition of the importance of social contexts has expanded our understanding of adolescent romantic relationships and sexual development, and has implications for effective education programs and healthcare interventions.

What are the strengths of previous studies in the field?

Previous studies have several strengths that contribute to the literature on romantic and sexual development during adolescence and young adulthood within the social contexts of

Why is sexuality education important for young people?

Sexuality is a central aspect of being human. It encompasses sexual behaviors, sexual orientations, eroticism, gender identities and reproduction. Adolescents want to learn about sex and have a right to accurate information. It is crucial to their development of identity, morality and the capacity of intimacy. Parents and peers play a socializing role, but they are not always the best at meeting the needs of the young people when it comes to sexuality education. That is why states and schools need to take this responsibility.

What is comprehensive sexuality education?

UNESCO defines comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) as a curriculum-based process of teaching and learning about the cognitive, emotional, physical and social aspects of sexuality. Its goals are to provide young people with knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that empower them to realize their health, well-being and dignity, develop respectful social and sexual relationships, and ensure the protection of their rights. A distinction can be made between conventional health-based CSE and rights-based empowerment CSE.

What is conventional health-based CSE?

Conventional health-based CSE provides curriculum-based, scientifically appropriate information on reproductive and sexual physiology and contraceptive and protective methods. Its main goal is to prevent sexual risks and other negative outcomes, such as sexually transmitted infections, HIV infections, and unplanned pregnancies. It promotes all available strategies to sexual prevention, including abstinence, safe sexual practices and the use of condoms.

What theory underpins conventional CSE?

Conventional CSE is theoretically driven by behavior change theory. It emphasizes social norms and values, attitudes, relationships and social skills as determinants of sexual health behavior.

What is rights-based empowerment CSE?

Empowerment CSE is about advancing young people´s knowledge, attitudes, and skills supportive of making informed sexual choices and of building safe and respectful relationships. It includes awareness of cultural, ideological, political and religious contexts and of the ways these contexts affect people´s sexual choices, behaviors, and relationships. It promotes sex positive values, such as mutual respect, human sexual rights, and gender equality.

What are the goals of empowerment CSE?

Empowerment CSE aims to contribute to societal transformation and

What is this article about?

Pregnant teenagers tell different stories about their experience. Their stories are influenced by normative discourses. How the meaning of teenage pregnancy is constructed depends on stigma and social norms, but the embodiment of pregnancy also plays a significant role.

Teenage pregnancies are associated with poverty and considered a risk for sexual active girls. American, European and Australian public health polices follow the neoliberal ideology, which sees an individual as rational and being capable of self-care and autonomy. Youngsters are encouraged to have sexual control and act responsible in order to prevent unplanned pregnancies. However, the (individual) choice regarding reproduction clashes with the (societal) imperative to avoid teenage pregnancy. An unplanned pregnancy is considered the result of behaving careless. The neoliberal ideology reinforces the belief that a teenage pregnancy is shameful. The negative portrayal of teenage pregnancies by sexual health policies worsens the stigmatization. Not every pregnant teenager has a negative experience. Scholars call for a re-examination of the normative discourses regarding teenage pregnancy and being a mother at an early age.

The aim of this study is to contribute to this re-examination by investigating how young Dutch women negotiate the meaning of abortion, motherhood and teenage pregnancy in the current normative landscape. Strategic negotiations refer to the process of understanding, reproducing and reworking existing narratives on teenage pregnancy. The question is: How do girls situate their families, themselves and their choices of reproduction in a broader social context? This involves recognizing how policies, relationships and social norms influence how individuals see themselves. When telling their stories girls develop and express narrative agency, which refers to the capacity to weave out (fragments of) narratives to make sense of herself as an individual.

Motherhood can heavily influence a young woman’s construction of responsibility and morality, and it gives them new life directions and a new identity. Instead of social exclusion, teenage pregnancies can also lead to social inclusion. However, teenage motherhood can also have negative consequences regarding education, poverty and stigmatization.

When it comes to abortion, The Netherlands is considered a liberal country. Although abortion is easily accessed, safe and legal, many people and media question the morality of it. Nearly half of the Dutch young women who underwent an abortion felt ashamed and even more kept it a secret. Women perceive abortion stigma from their social environment, which refers to a negative attribute ascribed to females who decide to end their pregnancy that labels them

The altered classification of sexual dysfunction of women in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and the approval by the FDA of the first drug to treat low sexual desire in females have led to a debate among researchers and clinicians.

How was female sexual dysfunction originally classified?

Psychosexual dysfunction was first mentioned in the DSM published in 1980. Previous versions did not cover sexual disorders. One of the included psychosexual dysfunctions was inhibited sexual desire, which was based on the Human Sexual Response Cycle (HSRC): “disturbances in sexual desire and in the physiological changes that characterize the sexual response cycle”. In the following edition published in 1994, the word inhibited was no longer used. A feature of the HSRC model is the universal range of phases of sexual response that are basically the same in men and women (excitement, arousal, orgasm, resolution). The criterion for Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder was also similar for both sexes.

The DSM classification and the HSRC both received a lot of criticism in the last decades. One complaint concerns the absence of defined duration and severity criteria. According to the criteria, nearly half of the American females have a sexual dysfunction. More defined severity criteria resulted in a much lower rate.

The classification of sexual disorders was heavily altered in the DSM edition published in 2013, especially regarding female sexual disorders. Defined severity and duration criteria to all sexual dysfunctions were presented, the requirement that the symptoms cause “clinically significant distress” was added and the HSRC phases were dropped. Disorders regarding arousal and desire (FSAD and HSDD) were deleted an a new disorder was introduced: Female Sexual Interest/Arousal Disorder (FSIAD). The criteria for low sexual arousal/desire included behavioral, physical and subjective aspects. Females need to meet three of six criteria (polythetic approach), as not all women experience the same arousal/interest problems and express them in various ways. 

What pharmaceutical treatments are available for low sexual desire in women?

A lot of criticism is also targeted at the increased medicalization of sexuality. The pharmaceutical industry tried to create a female version of Viagra. The creation of a pharmaceutical market for women included the promotion of the notion that Female Sexual Dysfunction is a urgent public health concern that requires treatment.

In 2004, trials of Viagra for females with arousal disorders were stopped due to men’s and women’s  fundamentally distinct relationship between desire and arousal. The focus was then redirected to treating low sexual desire, but the FDA disapproved a

Media coverage regarding sexual assault among college students puts pressure on universities to improve their sexual consent policies. The headlines express the controversy that surrounds sexual assault in college. American and Canadian universities are pressured to investigate and address the complaints of students. Both the accused and complaining student usually acknowledge the occurrence of sexual contact, but disagree about it being consensual. While most awareness and educational campaigns emphasize how important getting sexual consent is, they do not clarify what is considered consent.

What is the definition of sexual assault?

The terms rape, sexual assault and battery have no globally accepted definitions. Legal definitions and that of researchers vary. In general, they refer to sexual acts that are obtained by (the threat of) force or without consent.

• Rape refers to sexual penetration that is obtained by (the threat of) force or the victim being incapacitated.
• Sexual battery is usually defined as unwanted sexual touching.
• Sexual assault includes unwanted sexual touching and sexual penetration.

In this article, sexual assault refers to sexual touching or penetration without consent.

Why is sexual assault among college students receiving more attention now?

While it has been documented in the literature since the 1950s, addressing sexual assault became a priority in the US during the Obama era. New guidelines regarding the prevention of and response to sexual assault by universities and colleges were introduced in 2011. They declared that sexual violence is a form of prohibited sex discrimination and that schools are obligated by law to investigate and address complaints of sexual violence between students. Students who are not satisfied with the response, can file complaints against the school. Some students demand more severe sanctions against people that were found guilty. Some sanctioned students sued their university and mothers joined forces to raise awareness of the unfair treatment of accused students.

A number of states, including New York and California, signed legislation that obligate universities to adopt policies requiring ‘affirmative consent’. Every person involved in a sexual activity needs to have the affirmative consent of the other(s). The absence of resistance or protest does not equal consent. Affirmative consent can be revoked at any

What is this article about?

Global health and development policies focus mostly on teenage girls, as gender inequalities make them more disadvantaged and vulnerable. However, there are convincing reasons to take a closer look at adolescent boys. Their transition from childhood to adolescence is associated with several health problems and risk factors that influence their health during their whole life (e.g. injuries, violence, suicide, aids, alcohol, drugs, tobacco). Males are also less likely to seek help than females, and their behaviors have a significant impact on the well-being and health of females.

A frequently ignored contributing factor to the health behaviors of teenage boys is their gender socialization to adopt stereotypical or unequal attitudes related to masculinity. Early adolescence is a critical phase for the development of gender attitudes, especially because the start of puberty evokes and intensifies gender related expectations. A recent review on gender attitudes of young teenagers demonstrates that girls and boys experience significant different sources and pressures of gender socialization.

This article focuses on the types of masculinity norms and the key factors that shape the gender attitudes of boys. Certain interventions could address damaging masculinity norms.

What masculinity norms are endorsed by young adolescents?

Teenagers endorse masculinity norms linked to autonomy (e.g. providing, protecting, independency), psychical toughness (e.g. fighting, competing, high pain tolerance), heterosexual prowess (e.g. having sex with lots of girls, having control over girlfriends) and emotional stoicism (e.g. avoiding acting girly or showing vulnerability, not reaching out to others for help). Teenage boys are also more likely to endorse unequal norms related to gender. There are three possible explanations:

1. Norms that privilege males are considered ‘normal’, so boys are not tempted to challenge them.
2. Teenage boys experience greater relative power and freedom than girls, so they might not feel the need to challenge their privileges.
3. Boys that want to act more feminine or strive for equity face more social obstacles (stigmatization, labeling, ridicule) than girls.

What factors influence the gender attitudes of boys?

Various factors contribute to the gender socialization of teenagers, but peers and parents play a key role. The contribution of the parents involves direct and indirect communication, like different expectations, rules and sanctions for sons and daughters. During the transition into adolescence, (male) peers play a key role in the establishment of masculinity norms.