There is a dedicated brain area for acquiring oral language but not for written language (i.e. reading). The reading circuit consists of neural systems that support every level of language and includes visual and orthographic processes, working memory, attention, motor movements and higher-level comprehension and cognition. Each component works smoothly with accuracy and speed as reading develops automaticity (i.e. making reading more automatic).

Fluency (i.e. fluent comprehension) refers to a manner of reading in which all sublexical units, words and connected text and all the perceptual, linguistic and cognitive processes involved in each level are processed accurately and automatically so that sufficient time and resources can be allocated to comprehension and deeper thought. This means that reading needs to be both accurate and automatic.

Rapid automatized naming (RAN) refers to a mini-circuit of the later-developing reading circuitry. RAN tasks include naming a series of

Children with mathematical difficulties have particular impairments in understanding and processing numerical magnitudes. The defective number module hypothesis states that a highly specific deficit of an innate capacity to understand and represent quantities leads to difficulties in learning number and arithmetic. The access deficit hypothesis states that mathematical difficulties originate from impairments in accessing numerical meaning (i.e. their quantity) from symbols rather than from difficulties in processing numerosity.

Infants and young children are able to understand and manipulate numerical magnitude information by means of non-symbolic representations (e.g. discriminate between large sets of dots). Non-symbolic representations are characterized by a distance effect. This holds that the numerical difference (i.e. distance) between two sets that need to be compared is small, performance is slower and less accurate than when the distance is large (e.g. comparing 7 to 442 is easier than comparing 23 to 22). This effect may occur due to

Dyslexia refers to a language problem relating to the analysis of words in print. Identification of dyslexia often makes use of an exclusion criterion (e.g. IQ-achievement discrepancy) rather than several criteria. However, this exclusion criterion does not fit dyslexia properly as IQ tests in English are not reliable for a bilingual child whose language proficiency in English is still developing (e.g. immigrant children). The gap between indigenous and immigrant children decrease when immigrant children have been in the country for longer. This may lead children who are bilingual to not be identified as having a specific learning disorder (e.g. dyslexia).

IQ is likely to be underestimated in bilingual children while avoidance of IQ-tests will lead to under-identification. It may thus be useful to use a definition of dyslexia which does not make use of exclusionary criteria. Dyslexia is evident when fluent and accurate word reading and/or

Structural adversity and rejection by the host country may cause stress and negatively influence psychological adaptation. Adolescents are at particular risk because they have to function in different cultural contexts (e.g. family; peers; institutions; ethnic community). Turkish adolescent immigrants show more internalizing and externalizing problems compared to Dutch natives. However, there is no consensus regarding the impact of migration on psychological development. Results may vary due to methodological difficulties. For example, parents, teachers and adolescents report different levels of behavioural and emotional problems. Next, there may also be differences between specific migrant groups regarding their culture (1), socio-economic status (2), level of education (3), migration history (4), position in the host country (5) and reception in the host country (6).

Moroccans may have to cross a wider cultural gap when migrating to the Netherlands than Turks due to the lower levels of literacy (1), education (2)