As many of you probably know Rome was not built in a day, it was a civilization that was developing, flourishing, and finally fell to pieces in the span of twelve hundred years. This period is a considerable one in the history of mankind as it is almost as large as phase between the Dark Ages in Britain and the present day. Having existed for such a long time Roman civilization has had a profound influence on Western society.
Having said that and the fact that various civilizations in history have been influenced by others, it is worth mentioning that many aspects of Roman culture were borrowed from ancient Greece. Even though Romans were not great innovators, they used many aspects of Greek culture for their own purposes. These purposes include the zealous pursuit of order and discipline, and the administration of their vast empire. Furthermore, the freeborn ancient man was different in the sense that working hard has never been a valued quality. This is because slavery had been established as a mark of humanity to be inflicted upon the ones on the losing side in battle. In the first century AD, for instance, it is possible that one third of the population of Rome was composed of slaves.
The Roman epoch can be divided into three distinct parts. The first of which is known as the period of the kings. It starts with the founding of Rome on 21 April 753 BC, until 510 BC, when the last Roman king was cast out. The second one – the period of the Roman republic, lasted from 509 BC until 27 BC, it ended with the legal establishment of absolute rule by Augustus. This led to the inauguration of the Imperial age of Rome, which lasted from 27 BC until 476 AD, when the last emperor of Rome, Romulus Augustulus was deposed by Odoacer, his German mercenary. This brought the western empire to an end. The eastern empire, however, carried on beyond the Middle Ages, until the Turk, Mehmed II, finally captured Constantinople and brought the empire to an end.
The Legends behind Rome’s founding
The legend of the founding of Rome by Romulus is the most popular one. It dictates how a king, Numitor of Alba Longa, was expelled by his brother, Amulius. In order to secure his position, Amulius murdered Numitor’s sons and forced his daughter, Rhea Silvia, to become a vestal virgin, so that she would not have any sons, who could compete for Amulius’ throne. Regardless of how, Rhea Silvia caught the eye of the god Mars, who had his way with her while she was asleep. The result of this divine experience was two twins Romulus and Remus.
After having found about this, Amulius threw Rhea Silvia into the river Tiber, where she sank in the arms of the river’s god, who decided to marry her. The children were then put in a reed basket, which floated until it was trapped in the branches of a fig tree, and were then taken by a she-wolf. Later on, Romulus and Remus were found and saved by a royal shepherd. After that a couple found them and took care of them until Amulius was killed in battle and his place on the thrown was taken by the twin’s grandfather, Numitor.
As a result of the celebrations that took place afterwards, Romulus and Remus decided to build a new city next to the place, where they were rescued. Romulus took auspices by watching the flight of birds, which indicated that the city should be built on the Palatine Hill and that Romulus should be its king. He then proceeded to setting a boundary with an oxen-pulled plough. When Remus saw the boundary, probably in the gesture of mockery, jumped over the furrow, after which Romulus lost his temper and killed him.
The newly established settlement was short of women. When Romulus invited the neighboring Sabine tribe for a celebration to mark the harvest festival, the Romans abducted 600 Sabine daughters.
Another popular legend about the founding of Rome traces its origins from the Trojan War hero Aeneas – song of a mortal father and the goddess Venus. After having fought against the Greeks during the Trojan War, he wandered for many years until he finally settled in Italy and found the dynasty, from which Romulus originated. This legend particularly appealed to the emperors of Rome, as they liked to think that they were descended from heroes and that the city’s early struggle for survival reflected the heroic struggle of a true legend.
The historical sack of Troy was in about 1220 BC, therefore in order to cover the period until the date of the founding of Rome, the Romans invented a number of monarchs starting from Ascanius, son of Aeneas, to Numitor.
Historically, Latium and Etruria were essential for the establishment of Rome as an autonomous city-state, though the origin of the Roman tribes is yet unknown. It is known, however, that the Latins had been in the region since 1000 BC and herded sheep, goats, and cattle. They lived in dispersed communities, and their houses were made of wooden poles interwoven with branches, and then covered with clay.
Etruscan influence
Etruria was on the northern side of Rome and was a predominantly urban society, which gained its wealth through trade and their naval supremacy. The Etruscans were known for the extravagance of their decoration, artistic play, and the worship of gloomy gods. All of these features were later on transferred into Roman society.
In the period between 650 BC and 600 BC, the Etruscans crossed the Tiber and occupied Latium. This might have created the incentive for the Latin tribes to unite either to fend of the Etruscans or to be brought in line with the Etruscan imperial policy. From this point until the establishment of Rome the names of six kings are known: Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and Tarquinius Superbus. Even though there is little doubt that all of them existed, and the time is enough to fill the gap between Aeneas and Romulus, myth is so intertwined with history that it is hard to assign specific events the reign of any of them.
Rome under its Kings
The Roman talent for building empires originated from the period of the kings. Capturing land provided additional fighting power, and the Roman kings successfully captured lands to the south of the Tiber. After the destruction of the city of Alba Longa the Romans assumed precedence in religious affairs in all of Latium, since they took over the administration of festivities that had been celebrated on the Alban Mountain for centuries.
This period also left its footprints on the constitution of Rome. The king was appointed by the senate, which was an advisory body composed of patricians. The power of the king was similar to that of the father in a Roman family, and included the power to inflict capital punishment. The kings were responsible for foreign relations, war, security, public affairs, justice, and religious matters. Whenever he went he was followed by a band of lictors that carried the fasces, a bundle of sticks with an axe in the middle, signifying the punishments meted to criminals.
The Romans extended the concept of a father into the community. Every patrician family had its clients, an extended body of hereditary followers, who depended on the patricians for patronage and economic assistance and in return the clients offered their labor and in time of war, military service. Roman society was sharply divided; on one hand there is the socio-economic distinction between plebs, clients, and patricians, and on the other the tribal distinction between Ramnes, Luceres, and Tities, each responsible for the supply of 1.000 infantry and 100 cavalry in time of war. Each tribe was further split into ten curiae, whose representatives met with the king and the senate.
Roman trade was also divided. Numa Pompilius was the first one to start the policy of having different trade guilds. He divided the craftsmen in accordance to their trades. This division further facilitated barter, as Romans, unlike the Greeks, did not use money. Cattle’s value was measured by head of cattle, paecus, where the Latin word for money comes from - pecunia. Later on during the period of the kings, King Servius, who stamped an ox or a sheep on copper, developed a primitive monetary system.
The Etruscans were skilled in the construction of roads, hydraulics, and arch bridges. The Romans were to excel in all of them in time. A famous example of Roman architecture, for the construction of which all of them are used is the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. The temple is 60 meters long and 55 meters wide and its construction is attributed to Tarquinius Superbus, who supervised most of the building. Tarquinius also commissioned renowned Etruscan sculptors from Veii to construct a chariot to stand on top of the temple.
By the time the temple was completed the period of the kings was already over for good. The kings’ fall could best be represented by another legend told by Titus Livy (59 BC-17 AD), this story goes like this: Sextus, son of Tarquinius Superbus, angry with the chastity and beauty of Lucretia, wife of Collatinus, calls on her while her husband is away. According to the custom she offers him a bed for the night, and when all is quiet he enters her bedroom with his sword in hand. He threatens to kill her if she does not comply with his will, and when she refuses he threatens to kill her and lay beside her corpse the naked body of a slave. Lucretia regarded the rumor of her having committed adultery with a slave worse than death itself and therefore submitted to Sextus.
Since Lucretia is technically still guilty of adultery, which was in the time a crime of the upper class. She sends word to her father, whose authority exceeded that of her husband. She then calls her father and her husband, confesses her guilt, demands reparation for Sextus’ invasion of her body, and commits suicide.
Even though the rape of Lucretia is a popular theme in popular art and literature, it is difficult to prove that it was the reason for the fall of Tarquinius. Historically, it is more likely that it was simply a rebellion led by a band of nobles. Lucius Junius Brutus, who wished to follow the Greek model of a democratic government instead of a monarch who often extended his mandate, led the nobles.
When Tarquinius escaped he joined the ranks of the Etruscans, one of whose chiefs, known as Porsena, even occupied Rome. This campaign gave birth to the legends of Horatius, who held the bridge against the advancing Etruscans, and of Mucius Scaevola, who plunged his right hand into the flames rather than revealing details about a plan to assassinate the Etruscan leader. Porsena, having survived one assassination attempt, was so concerned that he withdrew his soldiers from the city in return for hostages.
At no time in history was the Roman republic a democracy in the Greek sense. People were not equal, but on the contrary, the whole population was rigidly divided by legal status. Men or women were classified, according to their birth, tribe, socio-economic status, etc. Two types of upper classes – the senators and the equites, governed the Republic. The equites were also further categorized according to their means and wealth, and were provided with a horse at public expense, with which they were expected to report for military duty.
Descriptions of Roman State Offices and Assemblies
The gradual change from a monarchical to a republican rule lay upon the two consuls the functions of the king. Since consuls had equal power, the lictors carrying the fasces had to be divided equally. Lucius Valerius Publicola was the one to institute that the lictors should march in front of each consul for a preset period of time and that the number of the fasces should not be increased or divided. The fasces symbolized power and authority in the Roman world. The fasces were a symbol of power and authority and were essentially a bundle of sticks with an axe in the middle.
The consuls governed for 6 months each, and both had the responsibility of “consulting the people and the senate”. Therefore, they led the assemblies of the senate and could propose new laws for consideration as well. Furthermore, people could also formally appeal against their decisions but only in time of peace, since in time of war consuls were usually away from the city and authority was taken in rotation from the officials, who were left in Rome. The main feature of being or having been a consul was prestige. Consulship was a privilege, which granted the ruling family the title of nobility and novus homo, meaning ‘new man’ or ‘upstart.’
Surprisingly enough, the Roman constitution allowed for a single individual to take all the power for more than 6 months and govern as a dictator. This clause in the constitution could be resorted to in time of crisis or war. His title was magister peditum (master of the infantry), and his second-in-command was known as magister equitum (master of the cavalry).
Matters of religion were handled by the pontifex maximus. This was an elected office, with which came an official residence in the middle of the forum. The pontifex maximus was responsible for the calendar, leading state ceremonies, and the nomination of vestal virgins and priests.
Another Roman office was the censor. The two censors acted as financial and tax officers, inspectors of public works, and arbiters of public ethics. The office was restricted to people who had climbed the cursus honorum (Roman political ladder of professions) from quaestor to consul.
The Roman praetors were the chief law officers and supreme judges; they were also substitutes of the consuls in the administration of provinces. Like the consuls, dictators, and masters of cavalry, the six praetors were granted imperium (power and authority) and were preceded by six lictors.
The four aediles, two of which always had to be of plebeian origin, were the supervisors of public works. They were responsible for looking after temples, markets, and games.
The four quaestores were the consuls’ assistants, who were in control of the military and civil treasuries and kept records. The minimum age for this office was 25 and allowed for the full completion of military service.
The Roman senate was the chief advisory body of the Republic. It was composed of 300 members, until the Sulla’s reforms in 79, which increased the number of senators. Nominations were in the beginning automatic and by birth and status, later the consuls and censors handled them. After the 4th century BC plebeians were allowed in the senate, which changed the function of the senate to a body of government officials. The senate had no authority to pass laws, but it had complete control over finance, religious matters, administration of the empire, and foreign relations.
The comitia curiata was originally a people’s council at the time of the kings; it was composed of representatives of each of the three original Roman tribes. Later, it ratified the election of consuls and functioned as a court of appeal.
The comitia centuriata assumed many of the functions of the comitia curiata after the 4th century BC. Originally it was an assembly of military representatives and constituted 193 centuries, to which voters were assigned according to their status. This assembly was responsible for the election of senior state officials, the declaration of war, the institution of peace treaties, approving legislation, and, in the early days of Rome, had the final say in cases of execution and exile.
The plebeian parliament was called concilium plebis and was responsible for the election of its own officials and decrees. These decrees were made binding to the whole community in 287 BC.
The tribal assemblies (comitia tributa) were similar to the concilium plebis, with the small difference that they were organized in tribes. They elected minor officials and were a means of approving legislation in a way similar to the comitia centuriata.
Rome’s expansion in Italy
The Roman state expanded rapidly exercising tactical aggression. By 265 BC the Romans managed to conquer the whole Italian peninsula and had repelled the invasions of the Gauls from the North. In 275 BC, the Romans drove back the armies of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who has been called by the Southern Greek polis Tarentum. Pyrrhus’s army was mainly composed of phalanxes and elephants, which were both used to achieve a victory against the Romans at Ausculum in 279 BC. This victory, however, cost him a great number of his own soldiers and he was forced to retreat.
The Roman attitude towards the subjugated peoples often depended on the circumstances. The Romans dealt with every conquest individually by either imposing restrictions or awarding privileges. Among the privileges were Roman citizenship without voting rights or probationary citizenship. On the negative side, the restrictions included giving up territory to the state. The Roman proverb divide et impera dictates that defeated states could sometimes trade with Rome but were never allowed to do so with each other. On the subject of the army, every conquered people was required to provide manpower for the Roman army. This army’s main source of income were the spoils and land gained through conquest, therefore the empire grew in accordance with these needs.
The most important year for the Roman conquest of Italy was 338 BC, when the Latin league of states was defeated. After the defeat of the league Rome made treaties with the towns of Cumae and Capua, whereby they were given Roman citizenship and had the duty of supplying soldiers in return for protection from Rome.
The Etruscan state started disintegrating after 310 BC when a Roman army reached as far as the slopes of Mount Ciminius and defeated nearly all Etruscan forces. Afterwards, the Etruscan cities sued for peace, which was followed by their complete capitulation in 283 BC.
The Gallic tribes in the north of the Italian peninsula resisted Roman invasions and stayed in the valley of the Po until 191 BC.
The Punic Wars (264-146 BC)
The Punic Wars were the great test for the Romans, which changed their empire from an Italian to a Mediterranean one. The conflict itself started because of the Greek city of Messana, in the northeastern part of the island of Sicily. In 289 BC Campanian mercenaries took and occupied it. When the Greek king of Syracuse decided to reclaim the city, the mercenaries called the Carthaginian fleet for help. Carthage obliged and stationed its fleet in the harbor after lifting the Greeks had lift the siege. When the Greeks retreated, they asked Rome for help, and Rome duly agreed to dispatch a small scouting army to restore Messana to its criminal status. Alarmed at the sight of the Roman forces the Carthaginian fleet sailed back home. This action was later on interpreted as a defeat by Carthage, and so began the conflict...
The first Punic war was fought from 264 BC until 241 BC and was mostly a naval conflict. The Roman fleet, which was nonexistent before the war, faced the challenge of fighting the large and experienced Carthaginian navy. Since artillery weapons were mostly primitive at the time, naval tactics included the battering of the enemy ships with specially designed rams. Furthermore, infantry played a crucial part as boarding and fighting the enemy hand to hand seized ships. Even though the Romans had little experience in naval combat, they made perfect use of their infantry in the grapples for enemy ships and finally managed to force Carthage to sue for peace. Soon after hostilities were ceased, the Romans decided to occupy the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, while the Carthaginians were busy with quelling a revolt in Africa.
The next step of Carthage was conquering central and southern Spain, with all of its wealth and manpower. A family trio led this successful campaign: Hamilcar Barca (d. 229BC), his son-in-law Hasdrubal (d 221 BC), and Hamilcar’s son Hannibal (247-182 BC). The Carthaginian avalanche was so successful that the Romans were forced to react. The river Ebro was seen as the boundary between the interests of the two opponents. The city of Saguntum, located south of Ebro, was an ally to Rome. In 221 BC Hasdrubal, the leading Carthaginian commander, was murdered, Hannibal took command and launched an attack on Saguntum. Thus, motivated by a desire for revenge and willingness to prevent Roman incursions into the newly conquered lands, Hannibal deliberately started the Second Punic War (218 BC-202 BC).
On the side of the Romans, this war began with heavy preparations of the fleet as the expected it to be a natural continuation of the first war. On the contrary, the Romans were about to be surprised by one of the most unexpected invasions in history. Hannibal marched his whole army through the Alps. According to Polybius, half of Hannibal’s forces died on the way, only 20.000 infantry and 6000 cavalry survived the journey to Italy. Soon after the incursion of northern Italy Hannibal managed to outflank two Roman armies, one before the river Trebia and another one by Lake Trasimene. Even though, Hannibal had thoughts of capturing the city of Rome, it proved to be a tough nut to crack so he bypassed it. At Cannae he surrounded and routed a numerically superior force and utterly destroyed it. His army stayed in Italy for another fourteen years before it was successfully lured back to Carthage during the campaign of Cornelius Scipio (234BC-183BC). In the final battle at Zama, Scipio prevented Hannibal from opening the battle with a frontal elephant charge and seized the day. Hannibal himself survived the battle, only to see his country fall into ruin and finally ended his life in exile in Asia.
The Third Punic War (149-146 BC) started because Carthage maneuvered into defending itself against Numidian invasions of their territory, which was a breach of the peace with Rome. The peace itself prohibited Carthaginian military operations without Rome’s permission. Rome declared war soon after the breaching of the peace agreements and sent 80.000 infantry and 4.000 cavalry, under the command not to stop the operation until Carthage was completely destroyed. The Carthaginians offered a heroic defense, which prolonged the war for 3 years, but in the end Carthage was fully destroyed and the 50.000 survivors were sold into slavery.
Rome’s Early Provincial System of Governance
When Rome defeated Carthage it acquired Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and Spain. These newly conquered territories were governed as provinces. A Roman province is a patch of land outside Italy with its own borders. It was governed by a Roman officer and was subject to Roman taxation.
As Rome started expanding even more rapidly Roman imperialism came into being. The process of Romanization was stimulated by profit and a desire to expand the empire. In the period between 197 BC and 146 BC Rome diverted its attention to the east and started a policy of favoring socii et amici. This meant that there were certain kingdoms, called client kingdoms, which did not pay taxes but were required to provide soldiers for the Roman army. Furthermore, should the client kingdom’s ruler die without leaving an heir, the kingdom would be bequeathed to Rome.
Later in the 2nd century BC, annexation and terror became leading policies of Rome. After the destruction of Carthage, the Achaean city of Corinth was destroyed. Even though the people of Corinth were given a certain degree of independence in their governance, they had failed to govern the city in harmony. Following this example of overpowering, Rome seized significant territories such as Illyricum and the kingdom of Pergamum, which was later made the capital of the Roman province of Asia.
In order to provide the newly conquered provinces Rome, with Roman imperium, the senate introduced a system of prorogations. This meant that after their office Roman consuls and praetors were liable to serve another term as provincial governors. The senate was responsible for deciding who would become a pro consule or pro praetore.
In the years after the establishment and the stabilization of the Republican empire, Rome witnessed the rise of three men. These men were Marcus Licinius Crassus, a man gifted in financial matters, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, a military leader and organizer, and Gaius Julius Caesar, a military genius and a canny politician. After the first two had helped Caesar in his election as consul in 59 BC, the three formed a political pact, known as the “First Triumvirate’ that ruled unconstitutionally for several years. When Crassus was killed in military action against the Parthians in about 250 BC, a vigorous power struggle started between Caesar and Pompey. After Caesar defeated Pompey in 48 BC at Pharsalus in Greece, he established himself as a self-appointed dictator of Rome.
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC)
The common image of Julius Caesar before his entry in the triumvirate was that of a common dandy who had misspent all of his and his wife’s money at the age of 30. This misconception, however, was in contradiction with the fact that he was a fine public speaker, advocate, qualities with the use of which he became a quaestor in Spain. Later on, as an aedile he stood out with extravagance in providing gladiatorial performances, renovating public buildings and roads, often at his own expense. This tendency to spend money was one of the reasons he resorted to bribery in order to be appointed governor of Egypt and after that pontifex maximus. As a praetor in Spain he discovered his uncanny military genius and managed to amass enough coin to pay off his debts and provide for himself.
After the formation of the triumvirate with Crassus and Pompey, Caesar, as consul, managed to pass many genuinely innovative and progressive laws. The senate, suspicious of his motivations, was unaware that he was simply securing his future in Gaul. Caesar managed to subjugate Gaul and the lands west of the Rhine in 51 BC after the battle of Alesia. The battle was fought against the Arvernian chief Vercingetorix, who had successfully fortified his position in a fort full of 80.000 infantry. When Caesar attacked with his 60.000 strong he was surprised by another Gallie force of 250.000 infantry and 8.000 cavalry, whom he managed to rout. After the battle and his consulate, Caesar obtained for himself the governorship of Gaul, and Illyricum, for two five-year periods.
In 49 BC Caesar crossed the river Rubicon with his troops as a sign of invasion, after which Pompey left to Greece to seek allies for the conflict that was to come. Pompey was defeated shortly after and was later killed in Egypt. Afterwards, Caesar marched to Rome, pausing at Zela to confront Pharnaces of Pontus, son of Mithridates, on which occasion he sent a message to the senate saying: ‘Veni, vidi, vici.’ In October 45 BC Caesar was back in Rome but was killed 5 months later on the 15th of March by senatorial conspirators. In the meantime he had established a new type of order in Rome and had drained large patches of marshy land, revised the tax laws of the newly included provinces, and along everything else changed the calendar.
Historians claim that the imperatorial rule of Rome started with Julius Caesar because at the time of his return to Rome after defeating Pompey and his allies he had more imperium than anyone else. The powers, which were assumed by Julius Caesar’s successor in 27 BC, gave him the constitutional right to keep this right to imperium.
Gaius (Julius Caesar) Octavi(an)us (23 September 63 BC- 19 August 14 AD)
Political life came at an early stage in Octavian’s life. At the time of the murder of Caesar, Octavian was in Apollonia in Epirus finishing his military studies. Soon after the 15th of March he found out that Caesar had named him not only his principal heir, but also, his son by adoption. Later in April, he returned to Rome with Marcus Antonius and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, who had previously been Caesar’s chief assistants. A series of battles and events led to Octavian becoming a consul at the age of 19. This effectively led to the creation of the second ruling triumvirate of Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus, who reinstated the grim Sullan policy of proscription.
After the establishment of the triumvirate it remained in power far beyond its statutory term, since the twelve years until 31 BC, these were years almost entirely taken by war. The triumvirs waged war against the republicans Brutus and Cassius, who were defeated at Philippi in Macedonia in 42 BC. Pompey’s son Sextus Pompey, who had taken control of Sicily, was finally murdered by his own army in 35 BC. From within the triumvirate, Antony’s affair with Cleopatra along with his preference for Egypt and her company rather than that of Rome and his wife, Octavian’s sister, led to a conflict between the two triumvirs. This conflict resulted in a naval battle at Actium in 31 BC, which was won by Octavian. After the battle, both Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide.
Once Octavian became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire he had to assemble his powers into an acceptable constitutional form in order to prevent future attempts to restoring the monarchical government. Augustus did not undermine the authority of the senate as a consultative body and managed to move the army from Italy and spread it along the borders of the vast empire. Even though the empire had not reached their widest extent, Augustus remodeled the military and infrastructural systems of the Roman Empire in order to facilitate future conquests. Augustus died in his family house at Nola in Campania, at the age of 76; having no sons of his own he nominated his stepson Tiberius as his heir.
Tiberius Claudius Nero (Caesar Augustus) (16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37)
The coming to power of Tiberius was entangled with political intrigues. After several years of instability all of the other candidates, among whom was Drusus, Augustus’s only son, Tiberius managed to establish himself on the throne. Tiberius, however, was indecisive in matters of government and decided to retire in his villa on the isle of Capri and never returned to Rome again. While he was away Aelius Sejanus, a praetorian prefect, took over the administrative responsibilities of the emperor and later on started plotting against him. Having found that Tiberius reminded Sejanus of his imperial authority and wrote a letter the senate informing its members of his suspicions. Soon after, Sejanus was killed and his corpse was dragged through the streets and then thrown into the Tiber. The rule of Tiberius was one of political intrigues rather than conquests. Tiberius named his last-surviving great-nephew, Gaius Caesar Caligula, as heir.
Gaius Caesar (Augustus) Germanicus (AD 12 – 24 January AD 41)
The chief of the fire service in Rome Cordus Sutorius Macro, with whom Caligula got on pretty well, put Caligula’s name forward to the senate. Caligula seemed to be everything that a young emperor ought to be interested in matters of state, generous to the public and the imperial guard, and last but not least charismatic. He recalled many political exiles and dropped the charges against most of them, he banished all male prostitutes. Later, he formally appointed his uncle Claudius to be consul suffectus with him in AD 37. This position was first introduced by Julius Caesar and was meant to allow a suffect consul to take the position of an elected one. The purpose behind it was to increase the number of qualified men in the most senior administrative positions.
After all of the enthusiasm Caligula fell ill. He never really recovered from his illness as he suffered from epilepsy, which later caused disturbances in his mind. He put Tiberius Gamellus and Macro to death without trial and ordered a statue of himself to be built and worshiped, in Jerusalem. His extravagance led to a tax increase in order to cover his personal expenditure. After months of conspiracies, public executions, and displays of sheer bloodlust the inevitable happened and the imperial guard murdered Caligula.
Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero (Caesar Augustus) Germanicus (1 August 10 BC – 12 October AD 54)
After the murder of Tiberius, while certain members of the imperial guard were sacking the palace they came across Claudius, hiding behind a curtain. Seeing in him value as a hostage they carried him off to their camp. Later, he was made an offer either be their nominee as emperor or die, not surprisingly he chose the former. Seeing that there was no better candidate for the position, the senate agreed to appoint Claudius emperor of Rome.
Claudius was a scholar, a publisher of books both in Latin and Greek. He, however, had no experience in administration, military operations, let alone of matters of governance. Claudius was a nice assortment of conflicting characteristics: absent-minded, hesitant, confused, determined, wise, and cruel. His choice of women was often disastrous, as he usually fell for prominent public figures.
As an administrator Claudius reintroduced the office of censor, which had been taken out by Caesar during his reign. Claudius also helped with the rationalization of the finances of the empire by dividing the emperor’s private spending from that of the state. Since most grain in Rome had to be imported from Africa and Egypt, Claudius decided to promote import by promising insurances against losses on the open sea, he also relived congestion on the Tiber to facilitate unloading.
Claudius also led a military campaign in Britain in AD 43, where he was in command of a significant, by Roman standards, force. His expedition leader, Aulus Plautius, became the governor of this new province after its conquest in AD 44.
Having no heirs, Claudius was easily persuaded to adopt Agrippina’s, Caligula’s sister, son, Nero. According to Tacitus, once Claudius had done that, Agrippina poisoned him.
Nero Claudius Caesar (Augustus) Germanicus (15 December AD37 – AD 68)
Nero was 16 when his mother secured the imperial throne for him. After giving the Praetorian Guard the now customary bonus he was mostly in the hands of his tutor, the distinguished philosopher Lucius Annaeus Seneca, and the praetorian prefect, Sextus Africanus Burrus. Nero was artistic, sporting, brutal, weak, erratic, extravagant, bisexual, and with a terrible lack of self-control. These qualities were displayed early in his rule when he made attempts to take mistresses like Poppaea, wife of his partner in frequent debaucheries.
Nero also made a couple of unsuccessful attempts to murder his mother, first with a bed that was supposed to collapse, and then a boat that was supposed to sink. After she managed to survive both of them, Nero simply sent a man to her house, who clubbed and stabbed her to death. After that happened in AD 59, Nero started excessive artistic celebrations and created various chariot-racing and athletics festivals, which gave him the opportunity to show his talent for singing and playing the lyre.
When Seneca retired in AD 62, Nero fell in the hands of fully corrupt and evil advisers, who only made it easier for his negative qualities to show up. An era of mass murders and terror began after his divorce with Octavia in AD 62, he killed her and married Poppaea, who he also killed.
In AD 64 a fire ravaged Rome for several days, on which occasion Nero is known to have played the violin while Rome burned. When people started suspecting arson, Nero turned to the Christians and massive murders began once again. Shortly after, the tide of organized revolt gathered pace and in AD 68. After a rebellious army that withdrew its oath to the emperor was crushed, the governor of Spain, Galba, informed the senate that he could take the office of emperor. After deliberations the senate declared Nero a public enemy and sentenced him to death by flogging.
Servius Sulpicius Galba (Caesar Augustus) (24 December 3 BC – 15 January AD 69)
Galba was a descendant of an ancient patrician family; he was also old and extremely distinguished. His methods, however, were known for their cruelty and disciplinary nature. His coming to power ended the so-called Julio-Claudian dynasty and created the precedent that an emperor could now come from outside Rome itself.
At the beginning of his rule Galba organized the murder of two generals who were late to bring their armies to Rome and swear allegiance. He also refused to pay a bonus to the imperial guard. Worse followed, a commanding officer from Upper Germany, Aulus Vitellius, was declared emperor by his troops. Galba responded by appointing Marcus Piso Licianus as join ruler and his successor. His choice was more than bad as Piso was neither qualified nor was he distinguished in any way. This angered Otho, the former husband of Nero’s Poppaea. Otho bribed the imperial guard and on 15 January AD 69 the imperial guard swore allegiance to Otho and killed both Galba and Piso.
Marcus Salvius Otho (Caesar Augustus) (28 April AD 32 – 14 April AD 69)
Otho wished to overcome the threat of civil war presented by Vitellius from the North. Vitellius’s two legions marched south into Italy, each using a different route. When Otho marched boldly to face them he was quickly outflanked and committed suicide on 14 April AD 69. He had been emperor for only 3 months.
Aulus Vitellius (Augustus Germanicus) (24 September AD 15 24 December AD 69)
Vitellius was a skilled governor but had little military experience. After having been offered the title of ‘Caesar’, he refused it and organized extravagant entertainment and races. Being sufficiently out of touch with the public, he assumed the position of pontifex maximus and made a pronouncement to worship and celebrate on a day, which was previously known to be unlucky. Even before this unfortunate event, the legions of the eastern Mediterranean had repudiated him and sworn their allegiance to Titus Flavius Vespasianus, a military commander in Judaea. Without waiting for further support the legions of the Danube did the same and marched into Italy with haste. Rome capitulated and Vitellius was captured and tortured to his death in 24 December AD 69.
Titus Flavius (Caesar) Vespasianus (Augustus) (17 November AD 9 – 24 June AD 79)
The return of the 61-year-old Vespasian in Rome in October AD 70 marked the return of internal peace and order in the empire. Vespasian had two sons, Titus and Domitian, Titus remained in Judaea to quell the Jewish rebellion in the area and was soon appointed Vespasian’s associate. Titus was also given the title of Caesar and was made head of the imperial guard, an important move by Vespasian, seeing the power that body has had in the past to appoint emperors.
Vespasian was from a distinguished family, his father was a tax collector, and his elder brother had served as consul suffectus. His mother’s father had been an army officer, and both of his brothers had sat in the senate holding the position of praetor. Vespasian made a name for himself during the assault of Britain and was responsible for taking the Isle of Wight. This success led to his being appointed as consul suffectus in AD 51, and later governor of Africa, followed by the same position in Judaea.
Even though Vespasian was a military commander he contributed to the cultural development of Rome. He pardoned all Jews after the sever quelling of the rebellion in Judaea and exempted all teachers of grammar, literature, and rhetoric from paying taxes.
Vespasian died of natural causes in the Sabine mountains; on the occasion there was no turmoil about succession.
Titus Flavius Sabinus (Caesar) Vespasianus (Augustus) ( 30 December AD 40 – 13 September AD 81)
In his youth Titus was dangerously charismatic, smart, and his sexual appetite was similar to that of Nero. Under guidance from his father, however, he demonstrated some talent for government and other useful qualities.
In Rome Titus built the massive Arch of Titus, which still stands today, and the Flavian Amphitheater, known as the Colosseum that was finished in AD 72, a year before his death. In August AD 79, when the volcano Vesuvius erupted the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were destroyed in less than an hour. After that, Titus announced a state of emergency and set up a relief fund for the homeless, and victims of the disaster.
When Titus died suddenly at the age of 40, many people suspected Domitian, who had been his shadow for a long time.
Titus Flavius (Caesar) Domitianus (Augustus) (24 October AD 51 – 18 September AD 96)
By many accounts Domitian was a dishonest and cunning person, yet an effective ruler. His father and brother had always left him out from the governance of the empire. Domitian did hold several public offices but all of them were only honorary. Therefore, when full power came to him he was quick to embrace it. He also appointed himself censor for life in AD 85. This resulted in refreshing pedantry, Domitian required all people who attended public games to be dressed in togas.
Under the Flavian emperors the empire’s administration experienced a rise in rationalization of funds and expenditure. Many of the existing dependent kingdoms became provinces of the empire, which led the Roman aristocracy to take strides against the growing of cosmopolitanism.
Militarily, Domitian led a successful campaign in Germany in AD 83, after which he raised he army’s pay, the first emperor to do so since Augustus. He was, however, deceived when a German force was gathering on the banks of the Danube and was lured to chase them, then he was led into an ambush and defeated.
During his rule Domitian reinstated the vague charge of maiestas (treason) to justify all persecutions and killings that took place afterwards. In AD 95 a wholesale slaughter was started in which many of Domitian’s associates were killed, this was followed by further conspiracies and political murder. During that period Domitian was stabbed by a steward, this led to the end of the Flavian dynasty. The senate nominated a respected lawyer, Marcus Cocceius Nerva to take over the government. After that, Domitian was denied a public funeral and his name was obliterated from all public buildings.
The Roman approach to religion was similar to their political way of thinking. Religion for the Roman was centered around the principle that there was a force that rules and guides everything that happens. The result from this was a very fragmented set of beliefs composed of a number of rituals, taboos, superstitions, and traditions, which evolved over the years to meet peoples changing needs. The father as a central figure in Roman society also had religious power and authority in the family. The father acted in family relations as he would have acted if elected, he was responsible for the performance of domestic rituals and prayers.
Roman Gods
Nearly all of the gods worshipped by the Romans had their Greek equivalents, as a sign of the lack of innovation in these matters, on the side of the Romans. The goddess Diana, goddess of light and unity, to whom Servius Tullius built a temple on the Aventine Hill in Rome, was one of the most valued by the Romans. In addition, reflecting the Roman lust for conquest, Mars, the god of war, also had a high standing in common worship. Other main deities were as follows:
Quirinus – God of the state, under whose name Romulus was worshiped
Bacchus – God of wine
Bellona – Goddess of war
Ceres – Goddess of agriculture
Cupid – God of love
Flora – Goddess of fertility and flowers
Fortuna (also Fors, Fors Fortuna) – Goddess of good luck
Hercules – God of victory and of commercial enterprises
Janus – God of doorways
Juno – Goddess of women
Jupiter – God of the heavens
Minerva- Goddess of crafts and industry
Salus – God of health
Sol – God of the sun
Vulcan – God of fire
As adopted by the Etruscans the Romans communicated with their Gods in three ways:
Looking into the future by carefully examining the entrails of sacrificed victims at an altar.
Careful attention was brought when it comes to lightings. Lightings were often feared and studied, as they were believed to show Jupiter’s anger.
And as widely done at the time, studying any unusual phenomena that occurred and linking them to Roman mythology in order to interpret them.
Conduct for Prayers and Sacrifices
The Romans believe that there was a contractual relationship between them and their gods. Believing in this relationship their religion reinforced the idea that there were two types of conduct: physical and spiritual. The first, gave people the ability to control the process of nature without them having to address the gods. The second was the way in which the Romans sought advice and guidance from their Gods.
The spiritual powers residing in the process of communication with the gods could be used only if the gods were addressed properly. The proper conduct during spiritual services was believed to influence the effect of the ritual in question. Therefore, if an error occurred while the pontifex maximus performed a ritual, he had to start all over again unless his intention was to anger the god he was seeking communication with. Great attention was also paid when addressing the proper deity. Since Romans had a multitude of gods and goddesses, the priest had to make sure was performing the right ritual for the right god.
Seeking guidance from the Roman gods was not free. A prayer, or spiritual intervention was often paid with a physical offering such as food, or an animal sacrifice. Sacrifices were also very strict since different gods favored different animals and different dates for the performance of the ritual. For instance, for Mars, a sacrifice was usually a combination of an ox, pig, or a sheep with the exception of 15 October, when it had to be a racehorse. This large variety of deities and rituals required a strong assistance by the Roman government, so that citizens could address the right god, with the right ritual, at the right time.
Rome’s State Religion
Religion on the institutional level was controlled by the pontifex maximus, administrative and ritualistic matters, on the other hand, were a responsibility of four colleges, whose members, with certain exceptions, were either appointed or elected, and in many cases office was held for life.
The members of the Pontifical College formed the senior body and were composed of the rex sacorum, pontifices, flamines, and the vestal virgins. Rex sacorum (king of religious rites) was an office created by the republic to keep the tradition of the king being at the head of religious matters.
The sixteen pontifices (priests) were mainly administrators and organizers of public events that had relation to affairs of the state. They were also the authority on procedure and matters of the state calendar and state festivities. Their authority stretched as far as deciding on particular days on which certain public affairs could not be conducted.
The flamines were also priests, but they served particular gods. There were three flamines for the major deities, Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus, and twelve for the lesser ones. This office was created for the purpose of having a priest with the knowledge required for the conduct of a specific ritual. In particular, the temple to be used, the type of sacrifice to be made, the date on which the event should take place, and last but not least, which deity to address.
The vestal virgins were chosen from ancient patrician families at an early age to serve at the temple of Vesta. The service included ten years as a novice, ten more years performing the duties, and then another ten teaching the novices. The responsibilities included the guarding of the sacred flame in the temple, which was located in the forum, and baking the salt cake, which was used during all types of rituals. As the correct behavior and conduct of rituals was crucial for their success, failure for any lapse was rigorous: flogging for letting the sacred fire go out, whipping and being buried alive for a breach of the vow of chastity. The prestige of being a vestal virgin was significant, as they were preceded by a lictor in the streets and had the authority of reprieving criminals condemned to death, if they happened to see the vestal virgins passing next to them.
The College of Augurs and its fifteen members were a key institution in the interpretation of omens and supernatural occurrences. They also acted as consultants to political rulers in case of doubt. Each of them carried a crooked staff, without any knots in it, which was used to mark the ground for official auspices.
The College of ‘Quindecimviri Sacris Faciundis (The College for Special Religious Duties) and its fifteen members kept the Sibylline Books. These books were also consulted in time of doubt and had considerable religious and political authority. Moreover, the college had the responsibility of supervising the worship of foreign deities that were introduced into the state religion.
The first three, later seven, officials of the College of Epulones, belonged to the least senior of the four colleges. Founded in 196 BC, initially for the function of managing and organizing public feasts, as such events had become an essential part in roman political life. Later this college was given its own budget for public banquets in honor of Jupiter, followed by the Great Roman Games in September and the People’s Games in November.
Games were the first known way of celebrating religious festivities, such as the one in the early legends of the kidnapping of the Sabine women. From chariot racing, on 21 August, to gladiatorial games, at the will of the emperor, public games were often at the heart of Roman political life. Religious festivals, however, could be both grim and joyful. For instance, February had two faces, first there were the nine days of the Parentalia, during which the family dead were worshiped, state officials were not allowed to do business, all temples were closed, and marriages were strictly forbidden. The second part of February was celebrated in complete contrast, with the rites of the Lupercalia, during which Romans honored the god of fertility – Faunus. The festivities started in the cave where Romulus and Remus were looked after by the she-wolf. After the sacrifice of several goats and a dog in the cave, a pair, wearing goatskins, ran a prescribed course while beating drums. The drums were supposed to promote fertility and women, who wanted to become pregnant, often positioned themselves strategically to be as close to them as possible.
5. Life in The Roman Society
Rome under both the republic and the empire was a socially divided state. The population was categorized according to social standing, race, birth, etc. The high ranks in society controlled the wealth and were free to manipulate both the legal and economic systems of the state. The lower ranks, however, depended entirely on the higher ones for their positions in society by becoming clients to powerful high ranked families. The Roman republic made it possible for plebeians to join the senate and the equestrian class, as long as they possessed more than 400.000 sesterces. Augustus further fashioned the senatorial order by giving it a hereditary aspect. Senators, and their families, were entitled to wear a toga with a latus clavus (a broad purple stripe). Furthermore, senatorial status meant that this newly created aristocracy was barred from marrying freedwomen and attending public spectacles for the sake of maintaining good publicity.
As this rigid division of society caused the rich to grow richer and the poor poorer, the urban plebs became a less respectable class in society. The plebs, mainly composed of artisans and shopkeepers, was becoming more and more uncontrollable. This made Augustus divide it into two groups, on one hand there was the plebs composed of professionals such as teachers, architects, physicians, and merchants, and on the other there was the plebs quae frumentum accipiebat (plebs who were entitled to a grain dole). The grain dole policy was started in order to keep the second group under control and prevent them from causing trouble in the streets.
Roman Economy
Rome’s economy was one of great complexity. Slaves did most of the menial work while the freeborn had comparatively long leisure hours. There was a surplus of public holidays and free public entertainment. In addition, one tenth of the population of the city of Rome received free grain. The free public festivities were often accompanied by the handing of free gifts of great value such as jewelry, grain, birds, paintings, slaves, farm animals, and even ships.
In order to understand Roman economy it is important to note that Rome imported almost everything it needed from its provinces. On a daily basis it imported grain from Egypt and Africa, wine from Spain, olive oil from Greece, etc. In Rome expenditure was highly restricted and depended on class, as imported goods were expensive and unavailable to slaves.
Economy in the provinces was somewhat different. Since Rome imported everything it needed from the provinces, these provinces had adopted production-centered economies. Furthermore, the army provided a great boost for local Roman economies and the production of goods that it needed such as pottery, bowls, plates, cups, and lamps.
Money in the Roman Empire was mostly spent on public entertainment and the army. The responsibility fell on the emperor’s shoulders and in time of shortage the people usually blamed him. However, the emperor had considerable private resources, which gave him a lot of political power over the people of Rome. The emperor was free to spend his own funds for public matters, which usually gained him the favor of the masses.
Work in the Roman World
The Romans usually worked six hours a day. Work, as Roman society, was also rigidly divided. There were strictly preconceived tasks for both women and men. Women were expected to stay home, while men were expected to work and provide for the family, and Rome always had work to be done… Schoolmasters, makers, blacksmiths, all disturbed life in the morning and night for there was no place in Rome for idlers. The port in Ostia was the one that controlled all imports and stored most of the goods in its warehouses before their transfer to the streets of Rome. In addition, Rome’s building industry accounted for a continual supply of skilled labor in the form of supervisors, surveyors, architects, and foremen. They in turn were supplied with the raw materials that were necessary for them to exercise their crafts and to contribute to the splendor of the capital.
The structure of Roman labor was, as everything else, linked to the Roman family. Sons in general tended to follow the steps of their fathers, and continue the family business. This trend guaranteed that businesses were preserved, which also helped for their potential growth.
There was a significant difference in the availability of jobs for the upper classes and freedmen. Since freedmen controlled most jobs in the fields of trade, architecture, teaching, art, medicine, and agricultural management, the Roman aristocracy had little choice in terms of employment. The Roman upper classes usually opted for careers in the army or law and politics. This limited availability of jobs for the well-educated aristocracy was the cause of high levels of unemployment among them.
Women’s Role in Roman Society
Roman society considered women to be inherently weaker and because of that women were seen as people who were in need of protection and should be under the control of guardians. These guardians could be men from the family such as the father or the husband, and in certain cases they could even be officially appointed. The only exceptions to this commonly accepted model were the six vestal virgins. Augustus brought some innovations and contributed to the relaxation of this rigid pursuit of hierarchy. He created more exceptions in the cases of freeborn women, who had more than three children and had no husband.
Women’s rights were significantly limited in the sense that marriages were, according to the custom, arranged and women had no say in the matter. In addition women had no possessions, since their guardians could decide on anything. Women were included in this system usually through marriage and there were several types of marriage, all of which gave the husband manus (legal guardian status).
The first and most commonly accepted kind of marriage included the consent of both parties, without any rites or ceremonies.
Usus - By cohabiting for a year without the woman being absent for more than three nights.
Coemptio – Was the act of purchasing a woman in the presence of five witnesses and a holder of a pair of scales.
Confarreatio – Was the most official type of marriage and was typical and obligatory for patrician families. It comprised a form of religious service with a prayer, a sacrifice, and the presence of the pontifex maximus.
Not surprisingly this restricted environment left little opportunity for women in terms of employment. There were a comparatively small number of women in professional jobs such as doctors, clerks, and secretaries, although there are records of such. All of these professions required special education and only few women were able to attain a degree and be a part of professional life. There are records of some women, who managed to attain degrees in history and culture and use their knowledge to reflect the culture and customs of Rome through their eyes. There are also other examples of women who gained power by marrying powerful men and thus climbing the ladder of Roman societal life.
Slavery in Roman Society
By using slave labor Romans were simply perpetuating an institution that had existed since 2600 BC in civilizations from Egypt to Greece and China. The treatment of slaves does not seem to have been any different in any of these societies; it is also similar to that of slaves during the colonial times in the Americas. The Romans based a large part of the production sector of their economy on slave labor; they turned slavery into the fabric of their empire. When in AD 200 the supply of slaves from abroad dwindled and the empire had to adapt to a new structure, emperor Caracalla granted Roman citizenship to all people who lived within the borders of the empire in AD 212. With this act both slaves and freeborn started as equals on the job market, which shook the foundations of an empire established on inequality and hierarchy.
The supply of slaves was essential for the growth of Rome’s economy. That is why one of the functions of provincial tax collectors was the kidnapping of potential slaves and then shipping them to specialized slave-markets, the biggest known one was the one at Delos; it could processes as many as 10.000 potential slaves in a day. Another way of supplying slaves for the empire was through military conquest. Many Roman conquerors, such as Julius Caesar, paid off their debts by condemning whole cities to slavery.
Until the empire, marriage between slaves was not recognized and slave children automatically assumed the status of slaves. Slaves were allowed to pay for their freedom, but this required them to keep what they had until they could finally buy it; running of course was punishable by death. A slave could in theory buy his or her freedom but the majority gained it by a process of manumission at the discretion of their owners. In fact this was so common during the early empire that Augustus was forced to introduce laws to restrict it, in order to maintain the slave-owning order. After being freed, a freedman had all rights as a citizen except that of holding any kind of public office.
Roman Education
In the early days of the Roman republic education was seen as a responsibility of the parents (mos mairoum) and was left entirely to them. Early Roman education included a mixture of martial and practical arts and while boys were expected to emulate their fathers, girls were expected to imitate their mothers. Towards the end of the republic, due to a large number of educated Greek slaves, a tutoring system was set up, which later on evolved into a large scale two-grade school system. It included studying rhetoric, philosophy and arithmetic. This early stage education was also available to girls until the age of 12. This schooling was considered sufficient for an ordinary tradesman and was also offered in specially designed shops with fronts on the streets of Rome.
After the completion of this basic schooling, boys, if their parents could afford the fees, could go to ‘grammar’ school, where they were expected to stay until the assumed the toga virilis, studying a mixture of Latin and Greek literature and rhetoric.
The study of rhetoric was considered one of the most important in ancient Rome, as it was crucial for a political career. There were three different branches of public speaking: artistic display, in the form of panegyric or invective rhetoric; persuasion of an audience to a point of view; and lastly defense or prosecution in a court of law. The skills that were taught were: selection of content, arrangement of arguments, language use, memory, and the art of persuasive delivery.
Roman Clothing
Romans, as with their architecture and engineering, mostly used simple materials for their clothing. Since only wool and linen were available, clothes were usually coarse; stitching was also difficult because needles were made of bone or bronze, and thread was of bad quality. For these reasons Romans usually fastened their clothes by using enormous safety-pins, belts, and knots.
Women’s clothing included a brassiere in the form of a band, the purpose of which was the keep the breasts up rather than in. They also wore a tunic that was longer than that of men, had long sleeves, and was belted around the waist. Men were also clothed in tunics but their tunics only reached the knees in length. In winter both men and women wore two types of tunics one of which was especially designed to keep the wearer warm.
The standard formal attire for the Roman citizen was the toga for men and the palla for women. It was a vast blanket of light wool, draped round the body, while leaving the right arm free. The women’s palla had a rectangular shape while the toga was in the form of a segment of a circle, along the straight edge of which ran the purple stripe of the toga praetexta (worn by men and family of senatorial rank). The toga presented some difficulties when putting on and off and was usually replaced with a dressing gown at feasts and parties.
Cloaks, worn in bad weather, and shoes were quite similar for both men and women. Romans usually wore sandals tied round the ankle and on more formal occasions they wore soft leather shoes called calceus.
Roman Food and Drink
Romans were big grain eaters, as grain was considered to be food for soldiers. The Latin word for grain (frumentum) also means military food or rations. The army diet was carefully supervised and was composed of a large variety of bread, biscuits, porridge, meat, and raw wine.
At home, the staple food was porridge and bread as many Romans depended on the grain dole for their needs. In more well-off families the regiment was different. Jentaculum (breakfast) was composed of bread, wine, cheese, dried fruits, and honey. Prandium (lunch) was also a light meal and was usually made from the leftovers from the previous day. Lastly, the cena (dinner) was the main meal of the day. It was eaten in the middle of the afternoon, right after the bath and usually went on for hours.
Wine was the national drink for Romans, while beer was for Britons and Gauls. A liter of wine was sometimes mixed with two tablespoons of honey to make mulsum, a refreshing aperitif that was served before the first course at dinner.
Rome’s imperialistic tendencies were only met by the opulence of its architecture. The application of practical skills and materials from all over the empire made Roman architecture a spectacular display of might. As with their clothing, Romans used simple materials, such as marble and stone for their buildings. These simple materials, however, were well ornamented into very innovative shapes such as the famous Composite column. The most famous Roman innovations in the filed of architecture were the famous Roman arches, vaults, domes, and the use of concrete, all of which gave distinction and a sense of grandeur to Roman buildings
Roman Sculpture
Romans learned the art of sculpture from the Greeks and Etruscans, and later reached their peak in the first and second centuries AD. The art of sculpture was stimulated by the Roman desire to worship images and to record ritualistic and triumphant events. Whereas Greeks generally used sculpture in order to capture faces and people, Romans were keener on using sculpture for remembering days of glory and famous, deified, persons such as Julius Caesar and Augustus. Another main difference between Greek and Roman sculpture was the representation of emotion on faces. Greeks were more idealistic in that regard as they showed little emotion in their sculptures. Romans on the other hand created a very innovative technique, a whole in the pupil to reflect light, in order to better represent the realistic face of the person that was being sculptured. Romans also used this technique in crafting of the portraits of people on coins during the early empire.
Domestic Architecture
A typical Roman house was usually composed of one room, the atrium, the roof was usually sloped inwards to a rectangular opening, beneath which was a basin, impluvium, set to catch rainwater. This was the heart of a Roman house; the other parts were in its extension, known as the peristylum. The peristylum included a garden court with a fountain, surrounded by a colonnaded passage where other rooms were located. The bath was usually located on the way between the atrium and the peristylum and was called the tablinum,
For the rich, there were two types of houses: villas and country houses. The villa known as the villa rustica (a countryside villa) was a huge farmhouse containing both living-quarters for the owner and for the workers. The villa urbana (a private residence) was a more luxurious residence, which was used for holidays out of Rome, or visited by people who stopped for a night during a journey.
Public Architecture
As Roman civilization was borrowed many things from Greek and Etruscan societies, the Romans mastered such borrowings to perfection. Among them were the Etruscan arches, and Greek Doric, Ionic and Corinthian columns. Etruscan arches were a key element in Roman architecture as they were stable and could be made from simple stones. Romans used arches in the construction of temples, aqueducts, and bridges. Having been exposed to the Greek style of column making, the Romans invented their own type by mixing and borrowing from all Greek ones. This resulted in the creation of the Composite column type, used all over Rome.
A key Roman invention was concrete and later on, pozzolana, which was a chocolate-colored volcanic earth, which was mixed with other ingredients and formed a powerful and waterproof substance that made the construction of huge structures possible. This mixture was also used to repair old and broken structures such as urban buildings and bridges.
The Roman desire for lavishness combined with the possibility to build huge structures resulted in buildings such as the magnificent Colosseum, the baths of Caracalla, and the temple of Jupiter in Rome. By using arches Romans could build high structures but these structures had to be either circular or straight, which explains the shape of many amphitheaters and aqueducts.
The large boundaries of the empire made it possible for innovators in the field, to experiment with different materials and invent new types of substances, such as harder bricks and waterproof layers. The large availability of different styles from Egyptian to Gaelic, made it easier for new discoveries, in both art and construction, to be made as architects could mix ideas freely.
The increasing boundaries of the empire required the construction of huge defensive fortifications and town walls. When Augustus stopped the expansion on the German border many architects used the newly discovered technologies to construct forts and walls on the banks of the Rhine. Furthermore, Hadrian’s Wall, a massive construction walling Northern Britain from one shore to another, discouraged the invasions of the Picts from the North.
The empire was further kept together and united by a huge network of roads, the construction of which was started by Julius Caesar. The army on its way to the provinces usually constructed these roads and further facilitated the movement of armies and merchants afterwards. All Roman roads were provided with milestones on every 1000 paces, which was 1.48 kilometers.
The most striking feature of Latin literature is the use of inflections and cases. This made works in Latin exceptionally sound and vibrant, Latin poetry is regarded as the best example. These key characteristics of Latin grammar allowed poets to experiment and change the order of words and stresses without altering the meaning. This flexibility of the Latin language led to the creation of literary works, which can hardly be translated to English; therefore even now, they are studied in Latin.
Quintus Ennius (239-169 BC)
Ennius is often regarded as the Geoffrey Chaucer of Roman Literature and the father of Latin poetry. He was born in Rudiae in Calabria on the ‘heel’ of Italy, under Greek patronage. He was fluent in Greek, Latin, and the local Oscan dialect. After finishing his service in the Second Punic War in 204 BC, he met Cato, then praetor, who took him to Rome, where Ennius started a new life. He then became the private tutor of Cato’s children and was earning enough money for a living. Shortly afterwards Ennius was granted Roman citizenship. He, however, was still heavily influenced by Greek culture and most of his works were stage tragedies, which often included Greek motives and themes. His greatest and biggest book was a verse history of Rome up to the First Punic War; it took him the last 20 years of his life to finish it.
Ennius’s greatest achievement was that he abandoned the previously rough and inexistent rhythms of earlier Latin writers. In his works, Ennius worked with the unique features of the Latin language, something that earlier writers had failed to do.
Comedy
The first Roman comedies were based on Greek works staged in Athens in the period between 400-200 BC. Their main features were stratagems, stock characters (young lovers, scheming slaves, family hang-on) and standard every-day situations, all performed with musical accompaniment.
Titus Maccus Plautus (254–184 BC)
Plautus was born in a small village in Umbria, but he left home early to go to Rome. He seemed to have found the stage pretty early and started working as a props-man until he earned enough money to set himself up in the same kind of business.
Plautius was not the first dramatist, but surely was one of the most popular ones. Terentius Varro attributed at least twenty-one plays to him, which by itself is a measure of Plautius’s talent. His work retained a raw freshness of its own. He devised various ways of adapting Greek verses to the Latin language, which was innovative at the time and his comedies were therefore widely performed. The main result from this innovation was the replacement of crude banter by verbal fireworks. He also introduced plays in which two consecutive scenes were played without any breaks in between.
Publius Terentius Afer (circa 185-159 BC)
Terence was brought to Rome as a slave from Africa. He was educated and later on given his freedom by his master Terentius Lucanus. His first play The Girl from Andros was first performed in 166 BC, and Terence managed to write five more before his death.
The main characteristics of his plays were double plots and the introduction of different characters, while letting the situation develop by it. Even though Plautus’s plays were superior in terms of clarity of language and expression, Terence still managed to gain more popularity by his charismatic characters and plot twists.
Lyric Poetry
This type of poetry allowed artists to express their feelings, although originally it simply meant poetry accompanied by a lyre. It originates from Greece, but the Romans decided to make it more sophisticated by introducing poetry to it.
Gaius Valerius Catullus (circa 84-54 BC)
Catullus was born in Verona and was of a relatively rich family. He came to Rome in 62 BC, dedicated to create his own style in poetry. His first works made him one of Rome’s ‘new poets’, who acted against their elders. From his poetry one is left with the impression that he was such that he enjoyed living it up. His poetry gives evidence that he enjoyed affairs and an emancipated lifestyle.
Catullus was anything but a prolific writer. Archaeologists have only discovered 116 poems, varying in length from 2 to 408 lines. The majority of them were bitingly observant cameos of friends and enemies, meetings, and affairs, where he often used coarse but amusing language. The main themes he used were mythological, emotional and love/hate motives.
Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65-8 BC)
The majority of Horace’s works display more grace and artifice than those of Catullus, but less emotion and passion. Horace was a poet who reflected the current political and social events. He enjoyed satire as a means of expressing his views and interpreting history. Love themes were rare, and most of his love poems were written in an iambic meter, which means that the first line of each verse was longer and was then followed by a shorter one. His first three books from 33 and 23 BC, respectively, reflect the events of the time and are among his most prominent works. His poem Carmen Saeculare was commissioned by Augustus to celebrate the Saecular Games in 17 BC, it was written in an iambic meter and was dedicated to various gods instead of historical events.
Publius Virgilius Maro (70-19 BC)
Virgil was the author of one of the most noteworthy epics of the empire of Rome. In the heart of Roman nationalism, the Aenid was arguably one of the most influential epics ever written. Even though Virgil wanted it burned before he died, the executors of his last will decided to respond with commendable common sense and preserved it. The work itself is unfinished in that it awaited final revision and polishing. The story, however, is complete and ends with a dramatic climax. Turnus, king of the Rutuli, stakes everything on a single combat with Aeneas, after which Turnus is wounded. When Aeneas is about to spare him, he sees on his opponent’s shoulder the belt of his dead ally and friend Pallas, which Turnus has stripped from the corpse breaching the code of chivalry. The story is a deliberate continuation of Homer’s Iliad, to stress the interconnectedness between Rome and the heroes of Troy.
Historians
Even though the first historian to write in Latin was Cato the Elder, his history of Rome is lost. Therefore the earliest accounts that are known are Julius Caesar’s own record of his campaigns in Gaul.
Gaius Julius Caesar (12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC)
Aulus Hiritus (d. 43 BC), one of Caesar’s officers, wrote De Bello Gallico. The book was only objective because it mentions Caesar’s own failures during the campaign but does not dwell upon them. Caesar appears to hold the weather or his subordinates responsible for his losses, rather than himself. The book itself is written in a clear, no-nonsense style, and is likely to have been a publication to supplement Caesar’s dispatches to the senate in order to promote his own image to the citizens of Rome. Caesar’s second book De Bello Civili accounts for Caesar’s art of an orator and politician as he carefully uses linguistic legerdemain in an attempt to put the blame for the Civil War on his opponents’ shoulders alone.
Titus Livius (59 BC – AD 17)
Titus Livy, as he is known, was born in Padua and lived most of his life in Rome, where he became a close acquaintance of Augustus and Claudius. Both emperors encouraged him to write history, and more specifically Roman history. Livy is known to glorify Rome and write prolifically about the period from Aeneas to 9 BC, leaving 142 books, of which 35 have been recovered. He was very popular because he concentrated on narrative and character depiction rather than historical accuracy. His works drew particular attention to the composition of the speeches of his protagonists. Titus Livy’s works, however, are not particularly accurate when it comes to military and geographical details; they have often been replaced by his desire for tradition and legend.
Cornelius Tacitus (circa AD 55-c. 117)
Tacitus was a public figure and a senator, then consul in AD 97. Later in AD 112 he became governor of the province of Asia. Being an outstanding public speaker, he published a book on oratory in his twenties. Unfortunately, only a few books have been recovered and these are the Histories and the Annals. He also wrote a short account on the land and people of Germany under the name of Germania.
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (circa AD 70 – circa 140)
Tranquillus came from a distinguished military family from Algiers. He was of equestrian class and had a succession of posts in the imperial court. He became director of the imperial libraries and then chief of Hadrian’s personal secretariat. All of this gave him access to archive material on earlier reigns, which he used to write a series of biographies, the only one that has survived is the Twelve Caesars.
Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4 BC-AD 65)
The Rhetorician, as he was known, was born in Córdoba, Spain, of a well-off and intellectual family. He was brought to Rome at an early age and was heavily influenced by Stoicism. Stoic philosophy ran counter that of the Epicureans, essentially bringing up the debate between “duty” and “pleasure”.
In his philosophical writings, Seneca, presents himself as a moral philosopher whose aim was to live in accordance with his moral values and through the exercise of reason. One of his works, Naturales Questiones, is a scientific examination of supernatural events from the point of view of a Stoic philosopher such as himself. His other works include various textbooks on oratory, tragedies, and other philosophical dialogues.
Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23-79)
Pliny the Elder, as was his popular name, was born in Como in a wealthy family and practiced law in Rome. He saw military service through several postings that was the period in which he started writing his first book – A History of the German Wars. He hid from public life during the reign of Nero and returned again in AD 70, soon after the accession of Vespasian. During that time he held several prestigious imperial offices and became deputy governor of Spain. Simultaneously he managed to write another thirty books on Roman history and thirty-seven of his Natural history. Natural History is his only surviving work and covers many subjects including physics, geography, ethnology, zoology, botany, and medicine. He used many different sources in his writing, in fact he needed so many sources that when he was not reading himself he had a slave read instead of him. He always carried a notebook so that he could write down things that might be used as sources. When he was a commander at Misenum to investigate the eruption of Vesuvius and tried to write down what had happened during the expedition. He went ashore on the beach, asphyxiated by the toxic fumes; he was buried under falling rocks.
The most fascinating feature of the Roman army was its organization and discipline; it was at the peak of Roman efficiency and its backbone were two types of troops. The first ones were the professionals, who were the survivors from the civil wars; sturdy men who sought extended periods of service under acceptable and reasonable conditions. The second group was composed of men who were anxious to be discharged and return to civilian life.
The New Army
Before the civil wars, the Roman legions were raised as needed and disbanded once the conflict was over. However, as the empire grew, a permanent and professional fighting force was needed. After the battle of Actium and Augustus’s victory he had the difficult task of deciding on the kind and size of the army for the years to come. Keeping in mind that most of the veterans had fought against each other in the past few years he had to station them accordingly and remove the potentially subversive officers. In the end he decided on a twenty-eight legions as a standing army, a size that remained for another 200 years. These legions were dispatched to protect the provinces of the empire, with concentrations at potential trouble spots such as Syria, and along the Rhine and the Danube.
Augustus nominated sixteen years as the minimal term of service in the legions, which was later, followed by a four-year period in reserve. Being in reserve meant, being with the legion but being excused normal duties. At the end of their service, soldiers were entitled to a set gratuity. In AD 5 this amount was 12.000 sesterces, which was equivalent to fourteen year’s pay for a legionary. To avoid any obstructions on the march, soldiers were forbidden to marry while on service. The leadership of a legion was in the hands of a legate, which was an appointed officer with prior experience in politics. Augustus promoted distinguished men of ability, promise, who had previously proven their loyalty to him.
The Roman Legion
Each legion was assigned a special number, while the numbers from I to IV were reserved for legions that were raised by consuls. It appears that several legions could have the same number, which might have caused confusion. In order to avoid this confusion legions also had nicknames such as: Fist German, First Italian, Second Parthian and Second Trajan’s Brave, The Tenth United, etc. A legion’s standard was often referred to as its ‘eagle’, it was carried wherever the legion went, it was a rally point, and also showed were the action in battle was. Needless to say, to lose it meant utter disgrace for the legion. The aquilifer, ranked just bellow centurions, was responsible for the safekeeping of the standard and the legion’s pay-chest. The imaginifer bore a second standard with an image of the emperor. Both of them wore animal skins over their uniforms.
Legions were interesting because they were self-contained units and could rely on their own resources for weeks ahead. The legionaries also did all the necessary manual work such as digging, construction, and engineering. During Caesar’s rule legionaries even built most of the empire’s road system. Every single man was self-contained as well, since they all carried clothes, cooking pots, rations, personal possessions, armor, and weapons. Each legion had a special body of craftsmen and engineers, called immunes (exempt from normal duties). These specialists included: surveyors, medical and veterinary professionals, armorers, carpenters, and soothsayers.
The new structure of the legion brought by Augustus improved the military in the sense that who you were no longer mattered as much as what you did. In addition a permanent army offered equestrians more career choices. Finally, centurions could achieve equestrian rank, along with the opportunities of status and wealth that came with it.
Other Units in the Roman Army
Only Roman citizens could join the legion but they were usually supported by auxiliary forces composed of other inhabitants of the empire. These auxiliaries could use their own military skill and weapons in order to assist the time-honored Roman infantry tactics. Originally the local chiefs commanded the auxiliaries, but under the empire the supporting units were included in the overall chain of command under Roman officers. From the reign of Claudius onward, an auxiliary soldier and his family were entitled to Roman citizenship after twenty-five years’ service.
Other troops that were a part of the Roman army were the cohors praetoria (the imperial guard), and the cohortes urbanae (city cohorts). Both types were garrisoned in Rome itself and were responsible for maintaining public order and warding off possible attacks from outside. The imperial guard was a special unit, whose members wore special uniforms and received double pay.
Military Tactics and Weaponry
The main unit in the Roman army was the infantry, which was effective and mobile. The legionaries wore heavy sandals, except for the winter and colder climates, when tight-fitting knee breeches were distributed. Their helmets were made of bronze, with a leather skullcap inside and projections to protect the back of the neck, ears and cheeks. A legionary’s shield was a huge, 1.2 meters long cylindrical shield, which was shaped to fit his body. This shield was a very effective siege weapon as a body of several men could crouch underneath their locked together shields and approach a wall undeterred by missiles from above. A legionary also carried two spears with metal heads, which were usually thrown at the enemy before a melee fight, when the Roman infantry would use their short double-edged thrusting and stabbing sword – the gladius.
The siege weapons of the Roman army were essential for land battles. The most important of which were the arrow-shooters or scorpions, which were deployed by centuries. During a siege the Romans used onagers (wild ass), which were giant catapults and had the function of siege batteries.
Marcus Ulpius Traianus (Trajan) (AD 52 – August 9, 117)
Trajan was born near Seville in AD 52 in a well-off family and became emperor in AD 98. The most important characteristic of his reign was that in the very beginning he demonstrated that the senate would be kept informed about every action of the emperor and that the sovereign right to rule was compatible with freedom for the ruled. From written accounts by Pliny the Younger, it is known that Trajan was a brilliant general, and a good person to work with and for.
During the second century AD Christians were prosecuted on a massive scale mainly because their religion and beliefs did not allow them to give the statutory reverence to the images of the gods and the emperor, and furthermore because they had the tendency of organizing private meetings as a secret society, which was a breach of one of Trajan’s edicts.
Trajan’s biggest success was indicated by his military prowess. After his triumph and final victory over the Dacians in AD 106, there were 123 days of public games and gladiatorial contests. Furthermore, Trajan built a column in Rome portraying the whole campaign, which still stands today. His next campaign was against the Parthian Empire between AD 114 and 116, during which he managed to conquer Mesopotamia, Babylon, and Ctesiphon. On the way back to Rome he fell ill and pronounced his chief-of-staff, Publius Aelius Hadrianus (Hadrian) his heir, after which Trajan died on August 9, AD 117.
Publius Aelius Hadrianus (Hadrian) (AD 76- July 10, 113)
Having been pronounced emperor by the army in the east, Hadrian was soon recognized by the senate in the risk of civil war. In the face of omnipresent revolts in the recently conquered territories, Hadrian decided to abandon some of Trajan’s conquests, restore order, and focus on administration.
Hadrian was an energetic leader, he spent most of his rule managing the empire’s administration and building fortification along the borders. He built more than a hundred forts along the Rhine and the Danube, and also fortified the southern borders of the empire with wooden palisades and artificial mounds. The wall he constructed in Britain that bears his name, still stands today. It is a valuable reminder of Hadrian’s role in securing and protecting the empire at its territorial peak.
Antonius Pius (AD September 19, 86 – March 7, 161)
It was probably because Hadrian left the administration of the empire in such good state that Antonius faced very few problems during his reign. He, however, made some adjustments to the borders. Antonius moved and secured the border of Upper Germany further north and built another turf wall in Britain all the way from Clyde to the Forth. The Antonine Wall was only protected until AD 165, while Hadrian’s Wall stood firm until about AD 400, when the Romans withdrew from Britain. Antonius died in peace, appropriately calm and dignified.
Marcus Aurelius (AD April 2, 121 – March 17, 180)
By contrast the ‘philosopher emperor’ Marcus Aurelius had to fight off numerous Germanic invasions during his rule. He also had to fend off the incursions of the Parthians to the east, from where his legions brought the deadliest plague known to the Romans. The dwindling size of the Roman army further threw the Northern campaign in disarray, which helped the Germanic tribes Marcomanni and Quadi to lay siege to Aquileia, a city in Italy. After Marcus Aurelius managed to lift the siege he forced the invaders further north and secured the border and after his return to Rome he pronounced his 15-year old son Commodus joint ruler.
This period began with the rule of the 19-year old Commodus whose governance proved to be a disaster and almost comparable to that of Nero. Initially he showed some grasp of foreign and trade affairs but he got himself into the hands of favorites and corruptible freedmen. His private life was a disgrace and his public extravagances excessive. He died ignominiously, strangled in his bath.
After Commodus there were at least twenty-nine other emperors, none of whom managed to hold the power for an extensive period of time. There were several attempts to divert the attention from the slowly collapsing empire by leading wars against the Germans and Scots. Apart from that there were no noteworthy imperial acts until Severus ascended to the imperial throne. Severus was a professional soldier with great military experience. He managed to maintain order in the empire by eliminating its military threats. Furthermore he extended the function of the prefect, previously a purely military office, to jurisdiction in matters of criminal law within 100 miles of Rome. Severus also appointed Aemilius Papinianus. As a noted legal expert Papinianus heralded a golden age in the interpretation of Roman law. Severus’s son Caracalla attempted to bring innovation to the empire by granting citizenship to everyone who lived within its borders, in AD 212. He, however, was murdered in Mesopotamia, in AD 217. After that the empire slowly began to fall into ruin and it was difficult to maintain its extensive borders united and under one ruler.
Constantine I (AD February 27, 272-May 22, 337)
Constantine was born in Naissus in Upper Moesia. He owes his appellation the ‘Great’ to two achievements in his life. The first one is the Edict of Milan, with which he eased the lives of the Christians within the empire by granting all religions freedom of worship, in AD 313. The second great accomplishment was his victory in the battle of the Milvian Bridge in AD 312, where he defeated Maxentius, who had previously ruled Rome as a separate part of the empire.
In AD 325 Constantine assembled 318 bishops at Nicaea in Bithynia and brought to discussion many issues concerning the Christian faith. This outcome of this assembly was the Nicene Creed, which even nowadays is quoted in both Catholic and Anglican service of communion. Finally, in AD 330 Constantine established the seat of government of the whole empire at Byzantium, which he later renamed Constantinople. Thereby ensuring that at least the eastern part of the empire would survive the inevitable loss of its western part. The Eastern Roman Empire survived until the middle of the fifteenth century, as a barrier between the east and the west.
The fall of the Roman Empire
Constantine had planned that upon his death the empire would be ruled by his three sons, Constantine II, Constantius II, Constans, and his nephew Dalmatius. This plan, however, was more than what the empire could take. The tetrarchy failed quickly after Constantine’s death and Valentinian (AD 321-375), who was nominated emperor by his troops at Nicaea, retrieved the pieces of empire that were left. He united with Valens (AD 328-378) and made an amicable east-west division. The empire was only united under Theodosius I the ‘Great.’
Early in the fourth century AD a fierce wave of nomadic tribes started invading both parts of the empire. Among these tribes were the Huns and their leader Attila. He managed to unite all tribes of the eastern steppes into an avalanche of horsemen, which succeeded in ravaging most of the Western Roman Empire before being defeated by Flavius Aetius at the Catalunian plains on June 20, 451.
After fending off several of these destructive invasions, the empire was exhausted and disunited. The last Roman emperor Romulus Augustulus was finally dethroned by one of his Germanic mercenaries, Odoacer, who declared himself king, in AD 476.
The Western Roman Empire’s eastern neighbor, Byzantium, was bypassed by the majority of the eastern hordes, mainly due to its geographic location. Being stable both politically and economically at the time, it was also less vulnerable and more able to defend itself from sporadic invasions. This could be seen in the fact that in the period between AD 364 and 476, there were sixteen emperors in the west and only eight in the east.
The Eastern Empire’s struggle for survival continued until May 29, 1453, when the Ottoman Turks finally conquered Constantinople. The last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI fell in battle fighting among his 10.000 defenders against the 100.000 Turkish invaders.
The Roman Legacy
The greatest thing about the civilization of Rome is that it existed for so long that many other civilizations started borrowing from its traditions. Such borrowings carry the legacy of Rome to the present day. The empire lasted for such a long time that many practices, which were typically Roman at the time, are now deeply embedded in modern life.
The most important inheritance that we have from the Romans is their alphabet. The Latin alphabet is used in all Romance, Germanic, some Slavic, and even languages from other families around the world. Furthermore, Latin is the basis for all other Romance languages (Italian, Romanian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Catalan, Galician, etc.). Latin has also influenced the English language so much that Latin roots can be found in more than a third of all English words. Later in the middle ages, Latin became the universal language of scholarly research and scientific thought.
Roman law is another important legacy from the empire. All European law is based on Roman law and its contribution is incalculable, from it come concepts such as impartial justice and trial by jury. Banking, insurance, public hospitals, the postal system, the daily newspapers, the fire service, motorways, public libraries, central heating, glass windows, sanitation, public education were all Roman inventions, which we can find all around us to the present day.
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