Multilingualism refers to speaking multiple languages. It is not just a technical task which only requires a cognitive dimension as it also has emotional, social and cultural significance. There are three dimensions for describing people’s associations with the languages they speak:
Simultaneous multilingualism (i.e. balanced bilingual) refers to learning the first and second language simultaneously. Both languages are learned in the home environment and the level of both languages is maximal depending on socioeconomic status and input. Successive multilingualism (i.e. functional bilingual) refers to learning the first language first and the second language after mastering the first one. The first language is learned in the home environment whereas the second language is learned at school or work. The level of the first language is maximal but the level of the second language varies. This multilingualism can be domain-specific (e.g. only reading; only speaking).
Lower order processes refer to the level of letter and word recognition. Higher-order processes refer to the comprehension of the content of text. Efficient lower-order processes allow to allocate optimal attention to the interpretation of meaning communicated in the text. Metacognitive skills in reading refer to the ability to use strategies to regulate the reading process.
When learning a language at home, exposure to the best language is essential. It appears as if the first language skill can predict second language learning early on in life. This could help with early diagnoses of reading and spelling problems of the second language. There are several theories as to how the first language influences learning the second:
In a structural model of languages, there are relations between skills in language one and language two. Lower order skills (e.g. vocabulary; syntax; word recognition) seem to be language-dependent and there is no transfer of skill. However, for higher-order skills (e.g. metacognition; reading strategies), this seems to be language independent. This means that transfer of skill is possible. The higher-order skills only seem to transfer when there is sufficient knowledge (e.g. vocabulary) of the second language. The speed of word recognition is unrelated to potential transfer, meaning that this does not provide support for the automaticity hypothesis. This does provide support for the threshold hypothesis.
For the first language, only metacognitive knowledge is important whereas vocabulary knowledge and metacognitive knowledge are important for reading comprehension in the second language. Processing speed does not contribute significantly to the reading comprehension of either language. A higher-order processing speed is important for reading comprehension of the first language.
One of the most important factors in explaining individual differences in second language learning is motivation. Extramural English exposure refers to English outside of a classroom (e.g. in the media).
Vocabulary is essential for learning a second language. Extramural exposure and formal exposure play an indirect role in vocabulary learning. Motivational factors mediate the relationship between different types of extramural exposure and vocabulary knowledge. Formal group linguistic self-confidence also mediates this relationship.
In research on multilingualism, dyslexic people are often overlooked while multilinguals can have dyslexia. The overall language competence and not just competence in one language needs to be assessed. There is an IQ-achievement discrepancy definition for dyslexia and this is problematic for multilinguals because:
This means that IQ is likely to be underestimated, making it more difficult to assess whether there is an IQ-achievement discrepancy in bilingual children. This makes it more difficult to give them an appropriate diagnosis of a specific learning disorder (e.g. dyslexia).
When teaching bilingual children with dyslexia, it is important to evaluate the balance between the needs of second language learners and needs related to dyslexia. Needs for second language learners include reading for meaning. Needs of students with dyslexia include addressing phonological skills more directly. However, there is a risk that exercises from dyslexia programmes do not work when learners have a limited vocabulary in the target language (e.g. in the case of bilinguals). There are five major challenges when it comes to research and practice with multilingualism and dyslexia:
There are five problem areas in a school context due to cultural differences:
For immigrants, social skill training may be necessary. This includes tackling the insufficient command of social situations (1), insufficient knowledge of codes (e.g. way of communicating) (2) and using the incorrect codes (3). This helps children learn additional roles, leading to integration rather than assimilation. It is important to not make any assumptions about a culture.
Acculturation refers to the phenomena which occur when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact. This leads to changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups. According to unidimensional models, acculturation is a process of change in the direction of the mainstream culture. Bidimensional models hold that there is an adaptation dimension and cultural maintenance dimension of acculturation.
Hutnik proposed a distinction between cultural change (i.e. acculturation) and self-categorization (i.e. identity). This is a two-dimensional model of acculturation. It combines identification with the ethnic minority group and the majority group. There are four identity strategies:
Resistance to acculturation is most persistent with regard to identity aspects and least with contact aspects of acculturation. The attitudes towards cultural change tend to be in the middle of this continuum (e.g. resistance to change increases when cultural distance is larger).
There are individual differences in cognitive, emotional and motivational determinants of acculturation. Psychological assessment needs to take these individual differences of acculturation into account rather than generalize the acculturation of a minority group as a whole. The adjustment dimension is more relevant than the cultural maintenance dimension. It allows to determine whether a person belongs to a population for which an instrument (e.g. IQ test) has been developed and it allows to determine whether the instrument is suitable for a particular person to measure the intended construct. Assessment outcomes need to be interpreted with the answers to these questions in mind.
It is important to assess acculturation because of three reasons:
When assessing acculturation, it is possible to ask people a single question pertaining to what culture they value most (1), ask two questions regarding how they value adapting and maintaining the culture (2) or four questions regarding each acculturation strategy (3). To approach the potential cultural bias in instruments it is possible to use cut-off scores (1), use hard acculturation data to establish norms (2), use acculturation as a covariate or moderator (3), use standardization or centring (4), use the item response theory (5), use method factors (6) or use the person-fit tradition (7).
Berry’s acculturation model assumes that acculturation strategies have trait characteristics and are the preferred strategy in all domains of life. The contextual acculturation model states that acculturation orientations are simultaneously influenced by pressure from the ethnic community and the host society. The preferred strategy may differ per domain. For example, in the public domain, the norms of the dominant group are most salient and influential. In the private domain, the ethnic in-group norms are most salient and most easily enforced. Acculturation strategies may thus differ depending on the context. When assessing acculturation is it necessary to look at both the public and private domain and to take attitudes into account.
There are two possible outcomes of acculturation. Psychological adjustment includes subjective well-being (1), satisfaction self-esteem (2) and psychological health (3). It is associated with a stress-and-coping approach of acculturation. This is predicted by high levels of social support (1), low incidence of life changes (2) and an internal locus of control (3). Sociocultural adaptation is related to learning processes and involves the acquisition of effective behaviours (1), social skills (2), language mastery (3) and cultural knowledge (4). This is predicted by a longer period of residence (1), a smaller cultural distance at group level (2), more frequent interactions with host nationals (3), more favourable attitudes toward cross-cultural adaptation (4), more emotional stability (5) and more extraversion (6).
The distinction between both types of outcomes of acculturation is important for assessment. When assessing competence-related behaviours in an academic or professional setting, it is important to look at attitudes towards adaptation (1), length of residence (2), cultural distance (3), language mastery (4), extraversion (5), achievement motivation (6) and social contacts and skills (7). When assessing psychological disturbances, it is important to assess positive attitudes towards cultural maintenance as this may be a source of psychological security and self-worth.
An item or instrument is biased if it does not have the same meaning for a different group (e.g. migrants vs. non-migrants). There are several types of bias:
The identification and prevention of construct bias typically require thorough knowledge of the society of origin and in-depth interviews and field observations. The method bias can be alleviated by using a detailed protocol and having trained administrators. The item bias can be alleviated by using psychometrics.
The rates of adjustment are in between the extremes in practice. Migration is stressful and it impacts psychological development. It is therefore important to focus on psychological adjustment and sociocultural adaptation.
Children are vulnerable to changes due to migration and acculturation. Adolescents are at particular risk to develop psychological problems. Needing to function in different cultural contexts (e.g. family; peers; institutions of society) can lead to feelings of alienation. Difficulties with language acquisition (1), integration in the educational system (2), racism (3) and identity (4) during adolescence may lead to behavioural and emotional problems.
Moroccan parents report similar levels of problems for their children compared to Dutch parents. However, teachers report more externalizing problems for Moroccan children than for Dutch children and the Moroccan adolescents report fewer problems than Dutch adolescents.
Turkish parents report more problem behaviour than Moroccan and Dutch parents. However, adolescents themselves do not report any differences. Teachers did not report more problem behaviour for Turkish adolescents compared to Moroccan adolescents. The differences between Moroccan and Turkish parents are most striking between the age of four and eleven. Teachers report more externalizing problems for Moroccan children than for Turkish children but for adolescents, they have fewer problems.
The effect of migration and acculturation on two immigration populations can be different. This may be due to the size of the cultural gap that has to be bridged. However, this is debated. The results may be explained by true differences in children’s behaviour (1), perceptual biases (2), social desirability (3) and different thresholds to report problem behaviours (4). Differences may occur due to methodological differences (1), different informants (2) and different cultures (3). Culture may influence expectancies and beliefs regarding children and this may influence distress felt concerning particular kinds of child behaviour. It may also influence the threshold for parents to report something as problem behaviour (e.g. behaviour has to be deviant from culture of origin rather than host culture to be seen as problematic).
Childhood: Clinical and School Psychology – Lecture 1 (UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM)
A case formulation refers to a hypothesis about why the problem behaviour exists and how it is maintained. This should be based on the longevity of the problems (1), consistency of problematic behaviour across situational contexts (2) and family history (3). Problematic behaviour is characterized by the four d’s:
Deviance from the normThe duration should also be taken into account. Clinical decisions are often taken based on measures of intensity (1), duration (2) and frequency of the behaviour relative to the norm. To have a valid diagnosis, several things need to be taken into account:
It is essential to take the developmental stage of a child into account when assessing behaviour. According to Erikson, children develop through psychosocial stages with socioemotional tasks that must be mastered to allow for positive growth across the lifespan (e.g. trust vs. mistrust). Behavioural theories state that behaviour is shaped by associations (i.e. contingencies) resulting from positive and negative reinforcement.
There are three questions that need to be answered by the clinician after assessment:
The adaptation theory states that early attachment relationships have an impact throughout the lifespan. Triadic reciprocity refers to the dynamic system between the person, the environment and behaviour where all three influence each other.
Family systems theory states that the family is a system made up of subsystems (e.g. parent and child; parent and parent). The behaviours in a system are aimed at maintaining or changing boundaries, alignment and power. A family’s degree of dysfunction can be determined by boundaries that are poorly or inconsistently defined.
The DSM is a categorical diagnostic system. It makes use of clear-cut categories as this is needed for health care service (e.g. insurance). However, there are several problems with this:
Childhood: Clinical and School Psychology – Lecture 2 (UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM)Fear refers to the emotional response to real or perceived immediate threat. Anxiety refers to the anticipation of future threat. Phobia refers to being fearful or anxious about or avoidant of a certain object or situation. There is no specific cognitive ideation.
There are four symptoms of anxiety:
Physiological symptomsThe purpose of anxiety is to alarm one of danger (1), prepare the body to act quickly (2) and keep distance from the danger (3). There is no strict boundary between typical and deviant anxiety. Therefore, the four d’s need to be evaluated when assessing anxiety.
What a child is afraid of changes with age. Children may be more afraid of animals due to their magical thinking. They may be afraid of the dark because of their inability to control it. At seven or eight years old children start to become more concerned with the future.
There is an increase in the prevalence of any anxiety disorders from the age of 11. There is a strong decline in separation anxiety disorder after the age of 10. For phobias, the prevalence can reach up to 16% in adolescence.
Children who suffer from anxiety disorders will be clinging (1), show physical complaints (2), have sleep problems (3), concentration problems (4), avoid certain situations (5), demonstrate a lot of ‘just in case’ behaviour (6), feel small (7), get angry (8), get easily upset (9), demonstrate perfectionism (10), stay home from school (11), lie (12) and alarm adults (13). There is comorbidity between ADHD and anxiety disorders.
Behavioural inhibition refers to inhibited behaviour. As an infant, there is high reactivity to stimuli (e.g. crying). In preschool, these children do not approach strangers (1), stare at strangers (2) and stays close to the mother (3). Modelling behaviour is stronger in the same-sex parent.
There are several risk factors for anxiety disorders:
Childhood: Clinical and School Psychology – Lecture 3 (UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM)About 5% of the children and 2.5% of the adults are diagnosed with ADHD. There are several requirements for a diagnosis:
There are three subtypes:
Children with the inattentive presentation are often misdiagnosed and misunderstood. It is often misinterpreted as a lack of motivation. The children may be characterized by a sluggish information processing style and there are problems with focused or selective attention. These children are unable to filter essential from non-essential details. This lack of attention may result from information overload and the inability to selectively limit the focus of attention. They have poor performance on tests because of this problem with attention and their poor concept of time and time management.
Children with the hyperactive-impulsive presentation experience academic problems due to their impulsive nature. They emphasize speed over accuracy and approach tasks incorrectly because they do not wait for all instructions. They are at social risk due to their impatient nature and they often have poor social skills and difficulties making and maintaining friends. They often gravitate towards other rule-breaking children.
A difficult temperament (1), poor sleep patterns (2), excessive activity (3), irritability (4) and a difficulty soothing the child when they are upset (5) are risk factors in infancy for the development of ADHD. During toddlerhood, the child may demonstrate higher levels of underregulated behaviours and a lack of self-control may persist during the transition to preschool.
The symptom presentation of ADHD differs with age. Inattention symptoms are consistent over time but the hyperactive/impulsive symptoms decrease over time. There is
.....read more Childhood: Clinical and School Psychology – Lecture 4 (UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM)Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with five criteria:
Symptoms of autism may not manifest themselves in early development if there is a mild version of the disorder. Most children with ASD will demonstrate difficulties in the key symptom clusters but the symptomatology and severity differ. The severity is based on support needed. This ranges from support to very substantial support.
In ASD, there is abnormal language development and several language difficulties are associated with ASD. The child with ASD:
There are several symptoms of Asperger’s syndrome:
While many people with Asperger’s syndrome see it as part of their identity, it was removed from the DSM-5 together with PDD-NOS (1), childhood disintegrative disorder (2) and autistic disorder (3). Asperger’s may not be severe enough to classify as part of the autistic spectrum. However, Asperger’s syndrome may be a separate category due to differences in language development.
.....read more Childhood: Clinical and School Psychology – Lecture 5 (UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM)The WISC-IQ test measures the following:
It measures what somebody can do.The focus of an IQ test is on school-based skills (e.g. language; math; understanding; spatial skills; planning; problem-solving; logical skills) and it also measures acquired knowledge and skills. This means that an IQ test does not only measure potential but also current intelligence. It is important to assess whether deficits are the results of lack of opportunities (i.e. deprivation) or limitations in capacity.
There is not a perfect relationship between school performance and IQ as school performance may be lower than somebody’s IQ due to socio-emotional circumstances (e.g. being bullied) or other issues making school performance more problematic (e.g. dyslexia).
An IQ score is not a school advice in the Netherlands. The schools give an advice and CITO scores and IQ scores could change this advice. The traditional view of giftedness holds that a child with an IQ of 130 is gifted. The current view of giftedness holds that there needs to be high ability but not necessarily an IQ score of 130 or higher. Somebody is not only gifted if somebody has potential but also if this person shows gifted behaviour.
According to Renzulli, giftedness does not depend on a single criterion (e.g. IQ) but refers to the interaction between three clusters of traits;
This definition is applicable to any valuable area of performance (e.g. music; arts) and not just academics. People who are gifted score above average on each of the clusters but not necessarily in the superior range. Whether somebody is gifted depends on the needs and values of a culture.
Persistence in the accomplishment of ends (1), integration toward goals (2), self-confidence (3) and freedom from inferiority feelings (4) are personality factors that predict achievement among individuals with high intellect.
While intelligence on IQ test is relatively stable it does not say anything about development. Giftedness focuses on exceptional behaviour. Gifted children need educational opportunities that are normally not provided in regular instruction. However, this may be needed for all children but the outcomes differ depending on talent.
According to Gardner, there are multiple intelligences. This includes the following:
According to this view, giftedness includes a biopsychological potential to process information. This can be activated by the appropriate cultural setting (e.g. teachers should present lessons through a variety of methods, such as music).
Sternberg’s
.....read more Childhood: Clinical and School Psychology – Lecture 6 (UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM)Multilingualism refers to speaking multiple languages. It is not just a technical task which only requires a cognitive dimension as it also has emotional, social and cultural significance. There are three dimensions for describing people’s associations with the languages they speak:
Simultaneous multilingualism (i.e. balanced bilingual) refers to learning the first and second language simultaneously. Both languages are learned in the home environment and the level of both languages is maximal depending on socioeconomic status and input. Successive multilingualism (i.e. functional bilingual) refers to learning the first language first and the second language after mastering the first one. The first language is learned in the home environment whereas the second language is learned at school or work. The level of the first language is maximal but the level of the second language varies. This multilingualism can be domain-specific (e.g. only reading; only speaking).
Lower order processes refer to the level of letter and word recognition. Higher-order processes refer to the comprehension of the content of text. Efficient lower-order processes allow to allocate optimal attention to the interpretation of meaning communicated in the text. Metacognitive skills in reading refer to the ability to use strategies to regulate the reading process.
When learning a language at home, exposure to the best language is essential. It appears as if the first language skill can predict second language learning early on in life. This could help with early diagnoses of reading and spelling problems of the second language. There are several theories as to how the first language influences learning the second:
In a structural model of languages, there are relations between skills in language one and language two. Lower
.....read more Childhood: Clinical and School Psychology – Lecture 7 (UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM)
Specific learning disabilities are detrimental to one’s well-being. The repeated academic failure associated with this continues to haunt people for years after formal schooling.
A specific learning disability originally included a discrepancy-based definition. This included a discrepancy between IQ and achievement (e.g. high IQ, low reading achievement). However, the degree of discrepancy is arbitrary. This definition favours older children and children with a higher IQ. It is failure-based (e.g. waiting for children to show failure in academics).
The current definition is focused on identification with response to intervention (RTI). It includes achievement in key academic areas that is substantially below the age norm and in excess of sensory deficit (1), linguistic processes (2), attention (3) and memory (4). The prevalence rate is about 2% to 10%.
There are often social deficits in people with SLD but this may be because they get rejected and neglected by peers more often. People with SLD typically have low self-esteem and a poor self-esteem.
The DSM-5 definition of a specific learning disorder includes the following:
The DSM-5 uses a discrepancy definition but not an IQ-discrepancy definition. There are three specifiers for severity:
Positive psychology interventions (PPI) aim to enhance well-being by increasing positive affect, cognition and behaviour (e.g. developing hope; mastery of life). This includes teaching coping skills. This approach holds that dyslexics have unique strengths and there needs to be a focus on this. However, not all dyslexics have unique strengths and their problems need to be addressed. Positive behavioural interventions (PBI) are more common and focus on providing remedies for the problematic behaviours associated with a specific learning disorder. Changing one’s mindset can help in alleviating the negative aspects of a specific
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