![Image](https://www.worldsupporter.org/sites/default/files/styles/medium/public/tips_suggestions/wereldbol_summaries_joho_single_boek_1_150x190px.png?itok=rEljlfYL)
Neuroenhancement, or the use of performance-enhancing drugs to increase performance received a lot of attention by ethicists, scholars, pharmacologists and researchers from other disciplines. The most often discussed drugs are amphetamine, methylphenidate, and modafinil. Currently, questions about whether the use of performance drug use at universities should be seen as cheating are discussed.
Publications in neuroethics often used the term “enhancement”, but the author wants to use another term: “instrumental drug use”. He suggests that, if we frame the phenomenon as instrumental drug use, it could be easier to integrate different types of research fields: neuroethics, addiction, substance use, drug diversion, and diffusion.
What is meant by ‘instrumental drug use’?
When people use substances to achieve goals, this is called instrumental. The author wants to explain that substance use is not only of irrational addictive origin, and it can also be instrumental. Drugs can be instruments. Christian Müller described how instrumental drug use has been prevalent throughout human history. Animals use drugs to increase their chances of survival and to reap evolutionary benefits. He distinguished nine different goals of drugs:
- Improve social interaction.
- Facilitate sexual behavior.
- Improve cognitive performance or counteract fatigue.
- Facilitate recovery or coping with stress.
- Self-medicate for psychiatric disorders and mental problems.
- Sensory curiosity; expand one’s perception.
- Experiencing euphoria, hedonia, or a ‘high’.
- Improve physical appearance or attractiveness.
- Facilitate spiritual or religious activities.
In the debate about neuroenhancement drugs, the term ‘enhancement’ signals that it is something positive. When we would use the term ‘instrumental drug use’, this is a more neutral term.
What is the known about instrumental drug use?
There have been a lot of studies conducted on instrumental drug use. A review of 28 different articles investigating “nonmedical stimulant use” (instrumental drug use) between 2000 and 2009 showed that the methodologies varied widely, and that most of the studies were based on self-reports from non-representative samples and those samples differed from 50 participants to 54.000 participants. The kinds of drugs studied differed, and also the time span differed. These studies also differ in their outcomes: the reported prevalence of instrumental drug use varied between 1.7 and 55%. Among the studies published about instrumental drug use, there were a lot of differences in the publications in terms of the definitions used to study nonmedical use, methodologies, and samples. It also seemed that academic motivations were mentioned most frequently. However, this may also be because students were most often studied! The second reason seemed to be recreation: getting high, help with socializing. Weight loss was not cited as often. Instrumental drug use was reported to be a public health problem, but not in epidemic proportions. Data from the Global Drug Survey of 2015 and 2017 showed that there has been an enormous increase in just two years!
However, a study by McAuliffe and colleagues showed that the use of instrumental amphetamine is declining since the mid-1960s, and that the use of recreational drugs is increasing. This study showed that the use of nonmedical drugs was more common in the 1960s to the 1980s than now in the 21st century.
What can be concluded?
The author concludes that it is difficult to come to a conclusion of the prevalence of instrumental drug use because there are a lot of different definitions and methodologies. The evidence reviewed in the current article shows that neuroenhancement is not new. Stimulant drugs and mostly amphetamine and methylphenidate are the most frequent non-medically used drugs. However, evidence that these drugs can benefit functioning is scarce. The effects of taking does not seem to be better than computer training, physical exercise, and healthy sleep. Also, even if there are benefits, there are also risks and side-effects.
BulletPoints
Neuroenhancement, or the use of performance-enhancing drugs to increase performance received a lot of attention by ethicists, scholars, pharmacologists and researchers from other disciplines. The most often discussed drugs are amphetamine, methylphenidate, and modafinil. Currently, questions about whether the use of performance drug use at universities should be seen as cheating are discussed.
When people use substances to achieve goals, this is called instrumental. The author wants to explain that substance use is not only of irrational addictive origin, and it can also be instrumental. Drugs can be instruments. Christian Müller described how instrumental drug use has been prevalent throughout human history. Animals use drugs to increase their chances of survival and to reap evolutionary benefits. He distinguished nine different goals of drugs.
The author concludes that it is difficult to come to a conclusion of the prevalence of instrumental drug use because there are a lot of different definitions and methodologies. The evidence reviewed in the current article shows that neuroenhancement is not new. Stimulant drugs and mostly amphetamine and methylphenidate are the most frequent non-medically used drugs. However, evidence that these drugs can benefit functioning is scarce! The effects of taking does not seem to be better than computer training, physical exercise, and healthy sleep. Also, even if there are benefits, there are also risks and side-effects.
Samenvattingen bij de voorgeschreven artikelen van Wetenschapstheorie (RUG) 21/22
Samenvattingen bij de voorgeschreven artikelen van Wetenschapstheorie (RUG) 21/22
Literature summary with the prescribed articles for Theory of Science (UG) 21/22
Literature summary with the prescribed articles for Theory of Science (UG) 21/22
- 1 of 2158
- volgende ›
JoHo can really use your help! Check out the various student jobs here that match your studies, improve your competencies, strengthen your CV and contribute to a more tolerant world
Online access to all summaries, study notes en practice exams
- Check out: Register with JoHo WorldSupporter: starting page (EN)
- Check out: Aanmelden bij JoHo WorldSupporter - startpagina (NL)
How and why would you use WorldSupporter.org for your summaries and study assistance?
- For free use of many of the summaries and study aids provided or collected by your fellow students.
- For free use of many of the lecture and study group notes, exam questions and practice questions.
- For use of all exclusive summaries and study assistance for those who are member with JoHo WorldSupporter with online access
- For compiling your own materials and contributions with relevant study help
- For sharing and finding relevant and interesting summaries, documents, notes, blogs, tips, videos, discussions, activities, recipes, side jobs and more.
Using and finding summaries, study notes en practice exams on JoHo WorldSupporter
There are several ways to navigate the large amount of summaries, study notes en practice exams on JoHo WorldSupporter.
- Use the menu above every page to go to one of the main starting pages
- Starting pages: for some fields of study and some university curricula editors have created (start) magazines where customised selections of summaries are put together to smoothen navigation. When you have found a magazine of your likings, add that page to your favorites so you can easily go to that starting point directly from your profile during future visits. Below you will find some start magazines per field of study
- Use the topics and taxonomy terms
- The topics and taxonomy of the study and working fields gives you insight in the amount of summaries that are tagged by authors on specific subjects. This type of navigation can help find summaries that you could have missed when just using the search tools. Tags are organised per field of study and per study institution. Note: not all content is tagged thoroughly, so when this approach doesn't give the results you were looking for, please check the search tool as back up
- Check or follow your (study) organizations:
- by checking or using your study organizations you are likely to discover all relevant study materials.
- this option is only available trough partner organizations
- Check or follow authors or other WorldSupporters
- by following individual users, authors you are likely to discover more relevant study materials.
- Use the Search tools
- 'Quick & Easy'- not very elegant but the fastest way to find a specific summary of a book or study assistance with a specific course or subject.
- The search tool is also available at the bottom of most pages
Do you want to share your summaries with JoHo WorldSupporter and its visitors?
- Check out: Why and how to add a WorldSupporter contributions
- JoHo members: JoHo WorldSupporter members can share content directly and have access to all content: Join JoHo and become a JoHo member
- Non-members: When you are not a member you do not have full access, but if you want to share your own content with others you can fill out the contact form
Quicklinks to fields of study for summaries and study assistance
Field of study
- All studies for summaries, study assistance and working fields
- Communication & Media sciences
- Corporate & Organizational Sciences
- Cultural Studies & Humanities
- Economy & Economical sciences
- Education & Pedagogic Sciences
- Health & Medical Sciences
- IT & Exact sciences
- Law & Justice
- Nature & Environmental Sciences
- Psychology & Behavioral Sciences
- Public Administration & Social Sciences
- Science & Research
- Technical Sciences
Add new contribution