Which applications and consequences are part of psychological testing? - BulletPoints 1

Topic 1A: The nature and uses of psychological testing

• Test can be very different, but they all share the same characteristics: a test is standardized, a test is based on a sample, it should be possible to deduce categories or scores from a test and lastly, the standardized sample has a norm with which scores of test Topics are compared with. Test are meant to predict other behavior, so a test can have more than one purpose.

• There is a distinction between the following types of tests: the majority of tests are norm-referenced, while other tests are criterion-referenced. Assessment is a term used for a more general research and it refers to the entire process of data collection from a person, which is used as a basis for saying something about that person’s characteristics and behavior. Tests consist of one source of information only for an entire assessment process. Tests can be crudely divided in group tests and individual tests.

• Different categories of tests are: intelligence tests, aptitude tests, performance tests, creativity tests, personality tests, interest inventory tests, behavioral procedures and neuropsychological tests.

• There are 5 ways in which a psychological tests can be used, namely: classification, diagnosis, knowledge about the self, evaluation of educational or social programs and research. The goals of tests are usually overlapping, which makes it difficult to make a distinction between them. A lot of tests can be used for multiple purposes within one assessment.

• There are different factors that can have an influence on the test results, for example the quality of the relationship between the test Topic and the researcher. Motivation and background of the test Topic are also influential factors.

Topic 1B: Ethical and social implications of testing

• The responsibility of a test isn’t just with the test user. Test developers are responsible for making sure their tests only get to people qualified to use them. The test user is responsible for the wellbeing of the test Topic and the acquired data should be treated confidentially. The test user should make sure that the test Topic signs the informed consent before testing and should write an honest and clear rapport within his or her own expertise.

• Psychological tests are especially aimed at Western populations. It cannot be assumed that existing tests are applicable to other cultures as well. Starting at the ‘30’s culture sensitive tests are up and coming, but the work in this field is far from complete. Research shows that people with different cultural backgrounds interpret tests in different ways and this can cause their data to be different.

• With tests, next to culture, one should also take a disability of a test Topic into account, as well as the stereotypical threat. Test scores aren’t always the same within and individual, but are manufactured within a social psychological field that is influenced by different cultural factors.

• Another factor that can have an influence on test data is fraud. This come into play especially in tests with influential results, like a selection test for a carrier or university. It seems that the national urge to use performance tests for selection criteria and evaluation inappropriate behavior can be a cause of fraud. It isn’t clear how large and widespread this problem is.

How are psychological tests seen throughout the ages? - BulletPoints 2

Topic 2A: The origins of psychological testing

• Psychological tests are based on a lot of different theories throughout the years. Physiognomy consists of the idea that people’s personality traits are inferable from their exterior, especially from the face. A special type of physiognomy is phrenology by Gall. This consists of ‘reading’ the bumps on a person’s head. Lavery developed a machine to read these bumps in the ‘30’s.

• In the experimental age experimental psychology grew immensely. Wundt, Galton, Catell and Wissler are the biggest names from this period. They were the first to empirically research psychological phenomena. Galton focused on measuring and researching personal differences in physical and behavioral traits. Cattel and Galton researched individual differences through different mental tests. In this time period rating scales were born. Galton was the first to use these in his research on the balance between bodily fluids.

• Ideas on mental retardation have changed over the years. The current view on this, is that there is a distinction between mental retardation and mental disorders. There are more reliable and valid treatments for mental retardation nowadays. Esquirol founded the first classification system for mental retardation: the use of short sentence, the use of only syllables and non-speech, just sounds. Seguin has founded an educational program for mentally retarded people, which is getting close to behavioral modification.

• The gap that came after the Galtonic tradition was filled by Binet, who introduced his intelligence scale in 1905. This scale has been revised multiple times and is the origin of the intelligence tests used nowadays. During the developing of these tests, people figured out that subtests aren’t applicable to all cultures and that intelligence is possibly culturally different.

Topic 2B: Testing from the early 1900s to the present

• Goddard, an influential psychologist at the beginning of the 20^th century, has used intelligence scale of Binet in the US in his research on simplemindedness in children and eventually in migrants. His results were similar to the social ideas of that time. His ideas were critiqued a.o. for misusing intelligence tests. This is why it’s so important to remind ourselves that prominent people acting within accepted norms of psychological tests can misuse them. One should always take social ideologies of the time of certain ideas into account.

• In the ‘30’s Hollingworth introduced the Stanford-Binet test for testing giftedness in children. She also had an active role in feminist movements and the belief that gender differences in intelligence and performance will be diminished when taking social and cultural influences into account.

• The revised version of the Binet sales by Stanford was an improvement on many different points. Next to the introduction of IQ as we know it, the revision makes sure that the tests are fit to measure simplemindedness in children and also average IQ and giftedness in adults. Next to this, clear instructions were set up for the assessment and a sample for standardization was carefully made. The Wechsler scale become a popular alternative, because I gives more than just one global IQ-score, like the Stanford-Binet test.

• After the 1900 tests were used for the military during the world wars, like the Army Alpha and the Army Beta tests for intelligence. The purpose there is to classify and assign soldiers. This was the basis for other psychological tests like aptitude tests, personality tests, projective tests and interest tests.

• Aptitude tests measure one or multiple specific skills. Personality tests were up and coming around world war one. Almost all modern personality tests have their roots in Woodworth’s first tests. Galton was the first to map out the projective approach in the 19^th century, by using an associative method. He proposed that mental processing happens in the subconscious. The interest tests has its basis with Thorndike (1912), who researched development trends in interest of students. The interest tests were predominantly used to see what kind of profession suits a person best.

• From the ‘40’s there has been more attention for using personality tests in a clinical setting and for the importance of evidence-based testing. Recently the ‘big five’ model is used most of the time and is the basis for a lot of tests. It consists of five factors: Neurotism, Extraversion, Openness to experience, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness (OCEAN).

Which theories, individual tests of intelligence and individual tests of achievement are there? - BulletPoints 5

Topic 5A: Theories of intelligence and factor analysis

• There are different definitions of intelligence. An operational definition doesn’t do justice to the true nature of intelligence. This is why a true definition of intelligence is needed and a lot of theories have tried to come up with one. The true definition explains the nature of a concept. To get to the true definition of intelligence, one has to consult experts. Another approach of trying to understand a construct is by studying the popular definition.

• Despite all the differences, there is agreement on two things: intelligence is the capacity to learn from experience and the capacity to adapt to the environment. The difference is where to put the emphasis.

• Through a factor analysis underlying structures of different test items having to do with intelligence, can be uncovered. The interpretation of these factors depend on the researcher.

• There are several different types of theories of intelligence developed throughout the years, for example Spearman’s g, Thurstone’s primary mental skills, Cattell-Horn-Carroll’s (CHC) theory and the structure-of-intellect from Gullford.

• Luria proposed planning, attention and simultaneous and successive theory (pass), which is a general theory on cognitive processing. The approach puts the emphasis on mechanisms that process information, which is why it is called the information processing theory.

• The theory of multiple intelligences from Gardner consists of different types of intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal. He proposed several criteria to distinguish between these seven autonomous intelligences.

• Sternberg has a theory on triarchic intelligence, since it focusses on three different aspects: componential/analytical intelligence, experience/creative intelligence and contextual/practical intelligence.

Topic 5B: Individual tests of intelligence and achievement

• The Wechsler Scale of Intelligence has brought a lot of changes in the area of intelligence tests. It changed the formula of IQ, the reliability and the validity, which were all improved. Next to this, he also developed separate tests for adults and children.

• The adult’s version, the WAIS IV and the children version, the WISC IV, consist of around 15 subtests, which give a general intelligence score and four index scores; verbal understanding, perceptual reasoning, working memory and processing speed.

• Next to this, there are different kinds of intelligence tests. The SB-5 can be used with individuals all over the cognitive spectrum. The DTLA-4 can be used as a diagnostic with its 16 compositions. The CAS-II is based on the PASS-theory and can be put to use to diagnose ADHD. The KBIT-2 is a fast test, which is used for screenings.

• Performance tests are used to measure how much is learned, like the KTEA-III. This can be used to see if children have a learning disability, which entails differences in general cognitive functioning and functioning in a specific area.

How are ‘special populations’ tested? - BulletPoints 7

Topic 7A: Infant and preschool assessment

• When assessing the development of newborn babies, the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) is used to research their different behaviors. It serves as feedback for the parents on how the child is developing and gives a score table. The developers of this test want to emphasize that a close relationship between the parent and child is most important.

• For children between 1 and 42 months old, the Bayley III is used with its five domains or scales to research. It can predict simplemindedness accurately, with: a cognitive scale, language scale, motor scale, social emotional scale and an adaptive behavioral scale.

• The DECA C was developed to assess children between the ages of 2 and 6 years old with emotional problems. The tests focuses on protective factors, but also contains problem scales.

• For preschool children an intelligence test can be used. An example of this type of test is the WPPSI-IV, which is an early version of an IQ test. It calculates five primary index scores and four subtest scores. The Early SB5 describes how a child acts during the test through characteristics and specific behaviors of a child.

• There is a lot of doubt about the use of tests for preschool children, because the predictive validity is low. It is shown that these tests can be useful in predicting simplemindedness. This is why fast screening tests are used often.

• To define if a child is ready to go to school, five models are used: development, surrounding, constructivist, cumulative skill and ecological models. Screening tests should be fast and easy, but this makes this type of test Topicive to mistakes. A good screening test should meet certain criteria, like the standard value should be at least 70, the test shouldn’t take longer than 30 minutes and children from different cultures should be screenable with the same test. Examples of screening tests are DIAL-4, Denver-II and HOME.

Topic 7B: Testing persons with disabilities

• There are non-language tests, which can be used to assess people who don’t speak the language, have autism, have brain damage or have speech and or hearing impediments. The Leiter-R test has 20 subtests divided over two test batteries; first visualization and reasoning and second memory and attention. The Draw-A-Person (DAP) test is a scoring system for drawing of children. The more detailed, the better. The H-NTLA consists of 12 subtests, which gives the Deviant Learning Quotient (LQ). The TONI-4 is a non-language test for individuals between the ages of 6 and 90 years old.

• The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-IV (PPVT-4) is useful for assessing people who can’t express themselves verbally and for people with weak motor conditions.

• For people who have impaired eyesight, there is the HISAB, a Wechsler test consisting of 6 subtests. The BLAT can also be used, consisting of six subtests of a type of braille. With the ITVIC the non-verbal subtests in the IQ test are replaced with haptic subtests, which require feeling.

• For mentally disabled people the SIB-R paints a good picture of how a person functions in real life; at home, at school and in public. The ICAP can also be used, which gives a Service Score, next to the VABS-II.

• To measure autism spectrum disorders one can use M-CHAT for toddlers and BISCUIT-1.

Where do personality tests originate from? - BulletPoints 8

Topic 8A: Theories of personality and projective techniques

• Personality is a vague construct, but there are two distinct characteristics. First, personality is consistent to some extent for every person and second, every person is distinct to some extent.

• Freud’s psychoanalytical theories were based on the subconscious, which consists of the id, the ego and the superego. The ego provides defense mechanisms to regulate emotions and urges.

• The type theory of Friedman and Roseman stated that people with a Type A personality are more hostile and have a greater risk of having heart- and coronary diseases.

• Rogers developed the self-theory, which is about to what extent people are who they want to be. He makes a distinction between the image you have of yourself and the image you want to meet.

• Behaviorists propose that the surrounding shapes and maintains behavior. The fundamentally disagree on the role cognitions play in behavior. Social learning theories propose that we have expectations and rules about our environment, which we learn, not just stimulus-response connections. Modern social learning theories posit that cognitions have influence on actions.

• Rotter developed the Internal – External Scale (I-E Scale) to measure the internal or external locus of control. This refers to the source of what happens to people, whether this is their doing or out of their hands. Bandura came up with the construct of self-efficiency as a personal assessment of how well people can execute tasks needed to deal with predicted situations.

• A characteristic is a way in which individuals differ from other individuals in the long run. Theories on this differ on how they classify different personalities, whether to use categories or dimensions. The personality theories of Cattell posit 16 personality traits. The Big Five consists of five different personality traits which spell out OCEAN.

• Projective tests are based on the idea that people have subconscious needs, urges and conflicts, which come out when an ambiguous stimulus has to be interpreted. They are divided into association tests, construction tests, completion tests and expression tests. Most clinicians use projective tests more as an addition to a clinical interview instead of as a test in its own, because the reliability and validity of these types of tests is questionable.

Topic 8B: Self-report and behavioral assessment of psychopathology

• There are different types of tests developed around existing theories. Examples of this are the Personality Research Form (PRF), based on Murray’s theory on manifest needs and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Next to this, tests can come from a factor analysis, like the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) and the Comrey Personality Scales (CPI).

• A tests based on a criterion divides the test Topics into two groups, namely criterion and control group. The most well-known example of this is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2). It is always scored on ten clinical scales, with possible interpretations. The Personality Inventory for Children (PIC-2) can also be used, with its 9 adaptive scales with either 2 or 3 subscales.

• The way of behavioral research depends on the goals and procedures of the therapy. Behavioral therapy can be divided into four categories, namely; exposure method, cognitive behavioral therapy, self-control procedure and training of social skills.

• (Semi)structured interviews are usually based on the DSM-IV, which contains five axes. Examples are SADS and SCID.

• Direct observation can be done in the test Topics natural environment and measures frequency of behavior by counting or by measuring the duration of the behavior. It can also happen in a structured environment, which is called an analogous behavioral assessment. A special type of observation is an ecological short research.

How does an assessment of normality and human strengths work? - BulletPoints 9

Topic 9A: Assessment within the normal spectrum

• When researching the personality of a normal person, normal personality tests are better applicable than tests designed for psychopathology. These tests aim at normality and human strong points, but also locus of control, responsibility, intuition and attachment.

• The widespan test is a test which measures general functioning of a person. Examples of this are: Extraversion-Introversion, Sensing-Intuiting, Thinking-Feeling and Judging-Perceiving. Questions on the CPI reflect three dimensions: Orientation, Questioning Rules and Level of Satisfaction. Orientation entails how people give direction to their inner life. The last is a moderator (positive or negative expression) between four different lifestyles, which follow from the first two vectors. The NEO PI-R is based on the five factor model of personality.

• For researching stability of personality, longitudinal research is used, but selective drop-out makes this difficult. Another way of going about this, is cross-sectional research, but this is sensitive to cohort effects. That’s why these two types of research are often combined into a cross-sequential research. Different researches can best be assessed with a meta-analysis in which effect-sizes are used.

• According to Kohlberg, three are three different levels of moral development, namely pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional. With every level, there are two sublevels. To measure this, the Moral Judgement Scale and the Defining Issues Test are used.

• The Religious Orientation Scale measures whether someone expresses religion intrinsically or extrinsically. This test was improved on with the Religion as Quest test. The ASPIRES Scale is a reliable and valid way to measure dimensions of spiritual, supernatural and religious feelings. The FMS is developed to measure belief with 8 theme’s and a predictive validity between them.

How does neuropsychological assessment and screening work? - BulletPoints 10

Topic 10A: Neurobiological concepts and behavioral assessment

• The brain is an organ which is protected by the skull, the meninges (multiple membranes) and cerebrospinal fluid.

• Structures and systems in the brain are: the center or cerebrum, which consists of the left and right half of the brain. They are connected by the corpus callosum, which is a great bundle of neutrons. They pass information through to both hemispheres. The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain, consisting of the occipital, temporal, parietal and frontal lobe.

• Systems for survival are: the hindbrain contains vital bodily functions and coordination. The midbrain consists of brain nerves, which are responsible for sensory and motor information.

• Ocular information is important for attention systems. There are different sorts of attention, namely orienting attention, selective attention, divided attention and sustained attention. There are no precise neurological systems for attention in the brain. It takes teamwork within multiple brain areas.

• Coordination and motor skills involves the cerebellum, the basal ganglia and the motor cortex. The cerebellum gets sensory information from the entire body and uses this to coordinate automatic taught movements. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and the other way around. The cells control voluntary motor movement.

• There are five ways to distinct between types of memory: episodic vs semantic, working memory vs associative memory, declarative vs procedural memory, explicit vs implicit and short term and long term memory. The hippocampus and amygdala are important for memory.

• The limbic system is central within the network of the brain underneath the cortex and is involved with survival urges and emotions.

• Language function is held in the left hemisphere, while the visual-spatio relationships are held in the right hemisphere. Vision is held in the lobe at the back of the brain. With all these three functions there is contra lateralization.

• The executive functions are held in the frontal lobe. These functions make sure people have the skill to react in an appropriate and adaptive way to a new environment.

• Most frequent problems as a consequence of traumatic brain accidents are memory and concentration problems. With the elderly, illnesses like Alzheimer, Parkinson or NPH can affect them. Vascular dementia is often the consequence of a stroke and is one of the most frequent causes of dementia.

• The MSE is used to gain insights into psychic functioning of a patient. The Behavioral and Psychological Assessment of Dementia (BPAD) is a scale of dementia related changes in behavior, measured among people starting at the age of 30. The Frontal Systems Behavior Scale (FrSBe) is developed especially to measure symptoms of frontal brain damage.

• Topic 10B: Neuropsychological tests, test batteries and screening instruments

• The model of brain-behavior relationships consists of sensory input, attention and concentration, learning and memory, the left hemisphere with language and linear thinking, the right hemisphere with visuo-spatial and holistic thinking, executive functions and finally motor output.

• Executive functions consist of logical analyzing, concept formation, reasoning, planning and mental flexibility.

• The preciseness of sensory input is crucial for perceptual skill, thoughts, planning and action. This can be tested with Reitan-Klove Sensory-Perceptual Examination.

• To test attention one can use TEA and CPT. This test can distinct with reasonable preciseness between different kinds of attention and concentration.

• To test memory and learning, one can make use of the WMS-IV and the RAVLT. The Fuid Object-Memory Evaluation, Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test and the WRAML are most often used with (demented) elderly. Memory and learning are two components who are hard to test separate from each other.

• To test aphasia and other language functions, non-standardized clinical research is mostly used, because they are more effective than standardized methods.

• To test spatial insight BGT and block models are used. These tests combine perceptual activity with motor reactions.

• Executive functions are tested with the Porteus Maze Test, the WCST, the Tinkertoy Test and the BADS. It’s hard to measure these functions and it can be difficult to get the patient to understand the task.

• Tests for motor output are the finger tap test and the Purdue Pegboard Test.

• For the neuropsychological assessment, multiple test batteries are available, like the LNNB and the NAB.

• To measure alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence different screening methods are CAGE, TWEAK and SASSI-3.

• With neurological testing it’s important to establish a baseline, so one can compare a person and determine whether someone deviates significantly.

When and how are industrial, professional and carrier assessments completed? - BulletPoints 11

Topic 11A: Industrial and organizational assessment

• Staff is selected in different ways. Biodata are lists with data from history of personal history and previous jobs. These are objective and accurate predictors of work performance, but employers trust subjective information more. An example of this is a job interview. The structured interviews are more reliable and more valid than unstructured ones.

• Cognitive testing has shown that general intelligence (g factor) is a better predictor for success in the workplace, than specific cognitive measurements. The WPT-R measures general mental skills. The BMCT is mostly used for understanding mechanical constructions and principles. The MCT measures speed and accuracy of perceptions.

• From the development of the big five, personality tests are a valid instrument of staff selection.

• The integrity test evaluates attitudes and experiences related to honesty, dependence, trust and pro-social behavior of the applicant. Validity studies have shown that they have a good correlation with counterproductive work behavior.

• A work sample is a miniature replica of a job for which an applicant has applied. A situational test differs with a work test, because the entire job is tested and not just parts of it. The goal of an assessment center is to evaluate potential managers through several training, like the basket technique.

• The assessing of work performance can be done with counting of production, the keeping track of absence, the reporting of colleagues or the self or the assessing by superiors. Three different types of bias which can have an influence on this process are the halo bias, the judgement bias and the criterion contamination.

Topic 11B: Assessment for career development in a global economy

• Carrier identity hasn’t been around for that long and it means that a carrier is part of who you are as a person.

• Blustein proposed that work fulfills three types of needs: survival and power, social ties and self-actualization.

• An important model is the RIASEC model of Holland, which distinguishes between different types of personal environments: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising and conventional.

• The theory of PEC is similar to Holland’s theory, which also looks at personal skills and necessary qualities for a profession when determining a carrier. With this theory there are crucial values, which are important for a carrier assessment.

• Donald Super proposed that carriers go through different phases: growth, exploration, establishment, maintaining and regression. Krumblotz developed the ‘Happenstance Learning Theory’ (HLT), which is based on four premises to fight social unfairness.

• The test used in carrier development is the Career Beliefs Inventory’ (CBI). It measures and identifies the attitudes and beliefs which can interfere with carrier development. A good fit between interests and the chosen profession cause more satisfaction, which increases productivity. Skills are important for this as well, summarized as productivity = skill x interest.

• The four tests used for interest assessment are mostly based on the RIASEC model from Holland and the Hollandcodes. These are SII-R, the VPI, the SDS and the CISS.

Where is the future of psychological testing and what are its legal issues? - BulletPoints 12

Topic 12B: Computerized assessment and the future of testing

• Computers are frequently used in assessment nowadays and its role also continues to grow.

• Computer based tests interpretation (CBTI) refers to the test interpretation and writing of the report by a computer. A scoring report consists of the scores or profiles on the taken test. A descriptive report gives a short interpretation of the test results per scale.

• The clinical assessment contains the information in their head, which forms a diagnoses, classification or prediction of behavior.

• With a statistical assessment an empirical acquired formula is used. Statistical interpretation uses empirical correlations between individual scales and important non-test criteria. Clinical interpretation of the test results is based on the judgement of multiple clinical experts.

• For an assessment one can make use of interactive videos nowadays. This is especially practical for a carrier assessment, because it shows how a person responds to a complex, realistic happening, in comparison to a paper and pen test. Virtual reality (VR) is a human computer interaction in which a person can navigate within a virtual 3D environment (VE), which one can manipulate. Examples are the ‘VE Grocery Store Test’ and the ‘Virtual Reality Lateralized Attention Test’ (VRLAT).

• Advantages of a computerized test interpretation is that it takes a short time between testing and reporting and it’s cheap. A disadvantage is that the human component is very low and the computerized variant of a test almost isn’t equivalent to the original anymore.

• Computerized adaptation tests (CAT) are procedures which measure skills accurately and efficiently. Advantages are its precision and efficiency.

• In the future it’s likely that measurements of people after brain surgery will be frequent. There will be less spectrum tests, more evidence based assessment and more positive psychology assessments. Through the smartphone revolution, smartphones and apps will become important as well in psychological testing.

Extra Chapter: Behavioral assessment – Reynolds

• Tests can be divided into two different kinds, namely maximal performance tests and typical reaction tests. With the maximal performance tests, skills are measured. With the typical reaction tests reactions or behaviors of a person are measured.

• Behavioral assessment differs from traditional tests. With a behavioral assessment the presence, frequency and duration of visible behavior is measured. It doesn’t interpret the behavior and doesn’t look at possible thoughts.

• Response bias and response sets can decrease the validity of a behavioral assessment. These reactions don’t represent true qualities of a person well. Think of exaggeration behavior for example.

• Behavioral assessment is most frequently used in schools, which makes use of rating scales, self-report or projective techniques.

• The behavioral interview differs from a clinical interview, since an interview puts the emphasis on different elements. Where a clinical interview focuses on protective and risk factors, the behavioral interview focuses on antecedents and consequences of behavior.

• The BASC is a frequently used set of instruments, which can be used for a behavioral assessment. It consists of multiple rating scales and observations. 16 primary scales investigate the nature of problem behavior.

• The Achenbach system of empirically based assessment contains a CBCL, TRF and a self-report measure, which provide insights into the nature of the problem and of the internalizing or externalizing aspects of a problem.

• Single-domain rating scales measure the symptoms of a certain disorder and specific behavioral dimension. This way allows for complementing information within an assessment.

• Adaptive behavioral rating scales are developed especially for the assessment of adaptive behavior.

• Direct observations are the oldest way of assessing behavior. It gives valuable information about behavior when it is used precisely and most preferably structured.

• Continuous performance tests are developed especially to measure vigilance, selective attention, sustained attention and executive control. These tests can be helpful when tracking disorders in the area of attention or self-regulation.

• Psychophysiological assessment researches the area of physical changes during events. A lot of instruments used for this are not yet standardized enough. Only EEG is a reliable and valid source at the moment.