3. How do you write a proper text?

What are the consequences of ‘vague’ language use?

Written documents are sometimes difficult to understand. This is often because vague language is used in the text. A term is called vague when it is not clear where the line is drawn in relation to the term. An example of such a term is "bald". There are people who do not have any hair at all, but also people who are half-bald because of hair loss, but they do still have some. In these cases, it’s not clear to what extent the term "bald" applies to them. Vague concepts often also appear in the judicial system. An example is that the word "torture" is not clearly defined in the law.

Sometimes politicians deliberately use vague terms just so they won’t have to answer difficult questions. The rule of thumb is that some degree of vagueness is acceptable, provided that it remains clear what the information or claim is about.

When can we speak of ambiguity?

Ambiguity exists when a word or sentence has more than one meaning and can therefore be interpreted in different ways. Three types of ambiguity are distinguished: (1) semantic, (2) group related, and (3) syntactic ambiguity.

1. Semantic ambiguity

Semantic ambiguity occurs when a word or sentence is used that is accompanied by ambiguity. An example is: "Jessica is cold". Does this mean that she is feeling cold or that she has a cold personality? You can prevent this ambiguity by replacing the words or phrases in question with a clearer description.

2. Group-related ambiguity ("grouping ambiguity")

Group-related ambiguity occurs when a word is used to talk about an entire group while it is not entirely true for all members of a group. An example: "Secretaries earn more than lawyers." This is true at group level, because there are more secretaries than lawyers in the world and thus, these secretaries earn more money. At the individual level, however, it is not correct. An average secretary does not earn more than a lawyer. There are two errors of thought based on this form of ambiguity.

• Thinking error of division ("fallacy of division"). Someone makes a fallacy of division mistake if he or she thinks that a true statement about a group as a whole also applies to the individual members of a group. If it appears that a certain football club has the best team, then that does not necessarily mean that the best players in the football world are in this team. What is true for the whole does not have to be right for parts of the whole.
• Misunderstanding of composition ("fallacy of composition"). This fallacy is actually the reverse of the aforementioned fallacy. In this case, someone argues from the idea that each member of a group has a specific characteristic and that the group as a whole will therefore also have this characteristic. However, this does not have to be correct. If you put the best football players of the world together, it doesn't have to be the best team in the world. It can happen that ego’s get in each other's way and that there is no cooperation.

3. Syntactic ambiguity

Syntactic ambiguity exists when a statement can be interpreted in several ways by the structure (syntax) of the statement. An example is that an authority states the following: "Identify yourself with a birth certificate or a driving license and another official proof that your photo is on". This sentence can be interpreted in two ways:

1. ["Identify yourself with a birth certificate or driver's license"] and ["another official document that your photo is on"].
2. ["Identify yourself with a birth certificate"] or ["a driver's license and other official document that your photo is on"].

To make the above sentence clearer, the sentence can be changed. An example of a clearer sentence is: "Identify yourself with a birth certificate or driver's license and you must also be able to show another official document of your photo". Such a change makes the previously present ambiguity in the sentence disappear.

Ambiguous pronoun references exist when it is not clear what a pronoun refers to. An example is: "The boys went after girls and they giggled." Who giggled? The girls or the boys?

Often context clarifies what the sentence means, but this is not always easy to read. On the other hand, it is more important to be able to identify that there is ambiguity in a statement rahter than what kind of ambiguity it is.

How does generalization work?

Just like vagueness and ambiguity, generalization can lead to ambiguity or misunderstanding. The fewer details or specific terms a statement gives, the more general it becomes. For example, the statement "Jack has a pet" is more general than "Jack has a dog." Another example is that Bush previously claimed to wage a war against all the terror in the world. The word "war" is vague and general, so it is not at all clear what exactly he means by this. This also applies to the word "terror." In short, when events are described too generally, this leads to uncertainty. Often, politicians will use general terms, so that, if they cannot deliver on their promises, they may then proclaim that people took up their claims much more specific than they were, and in this way shift the blame.

Why is it important to define terms well?

It is important to define terms well so that terms and sentences are clear. Some terms are easier to define than others. Defining the word "root" is easier than defining the word "truth" or "knowledge." Definitions can vary between languages ​​and cultures, and it is important to make a definition as clear as possible to avoid misunderstandings.

We use definitions because;

1. By using definitions we can know what words mean. In this case it concerns lexical definitions - definitions that you could find in a dictionary.
2. By means of definitions we can give a word a special meaning in some contexts. This is possible with a sentence or clause that specifically specifies what is meant, such as; "In this contract we will only speak of US dollars ." In this case, there is a stipulative definition. In addition, we use definitions to avoid vagueness, ambiguity and generalization. When this is the case, we speak of a specific definition (aka "precise definitions").
3. Finally, definitions can be used to convince people. These are called convincing definitions ("persuasive / rhetorical definitions"). It is not clear whether we can really label this kind of definitions as actual definitions though, because in principle they are not used to convey information objectively, but to convince people of something.

It can also happen that people make a definition that is not based on facts, such as; "All men are dirty, lazy liars who are incapable of cleaning up after their asses." When these types of persuasion-oriented definitions are devised, emotions are being appealed to ("emotive meaning / rhetorical force"). The next time someone hears a word, the new "definition" immediately brings with it an emotion. Another example is describing abortion as murder. This immediately creates a negative feeling.

What are different types of definitions?

In practice, there are three types of definitions:

1. Definitions based on examples ("ostensive definition"). In this case, examples are given to what the term is about. An example is: "By holy texts I mean books such as the Bible and the Koran."
2. Definitions based on synonyms ("definition by synonym"). For example, when someone explains a definition using synonyms, he or she says, "By polite I mean kind."
3. Analytical definitions (AKA "lexical definitions"). In this case, someone is talking about what characteristics an object must have if a term can be used for that object. An example is: "A mongoose is a small mammal that comes from India, eats snakes and is related to the civet cat." Almost all dictionary definitions are analytical.

It is important for all types of definitions that they (1) contain no (bias) judgments and (2) that they are clear. When in use, they should not, simply on the basis of the specific use of wording, give an advantage to one of the two parties in a discussion,. In addition, it often happens in life that we come across incomplete definitions. Concepts such as "friendship" and "love" are things for which each has his or her own definition and a lot of the time, no two people’s definitions are exactly the same.

Of what components does an essay consist?

A persuasive essay must at least contain the following four parts:

1. A clarification and/or definition of the subject.
2. An explanation of one's own opinion on that subject.
3. Arguments that support your own opinion.
4. Disproving the arguments of people who have a different opinion on the subject.

The best thing is to start with an introduction that explains why a topic is interesting to write about at all. You can then comment on your own opinion. This must be clearly formulated so that the reader immediately understands what the author thinks of the subject. The arguments used must also be clear and reliable.

Writing a good and persuasive essay

There are four tips that can be used to write a good and persuasive essay.

1. Focus on the topic you want to talk about and know what you want to say about it (focus). Try to bring this into your essay in a fun and refreshing way, so that the reader wants to continue reading.
2. All points in your essay must relate to the subject you are writing about. These points must (1) support, explain, clarify or explain your opinion or (2) give counter-arguments for people who do not share your opinion ("stick to the issue").
3. Ensure that your essay is structured in a logical manner. For example, first tell which argument you use before you go into it. (logic)
4. Make sure you have discussed everything that needs to be discussed. It is easier to choose a topic that is not very broad, because with a wide topic it is difficult to discuss everything that needs to be discussed. (coverage)

Tips for writing an essay in a proper way

The following four tips are given to write in a proper way:

1. Look critically at your piece after your first version. Is the piece logically structured?
2. Check your work constantly. Are there errors in it? Are there irregularities in it?
3. Have someone else read your piece.
4. If you have trouble with grammar or punctuation, read your piece out loud. This way mistakes stand out faster because you are hearing them rather than just reading.
5. Don't look at your piece for a while when you're done with it. However, it is good to read your own piece again after a couple hours / days.

Which types of essays should you avoid?

It is advisable to pay attention to the following writing errors when writing an essay:

• "The Windy Preamble": the writer is always turning about the subject without making an actual point or statement and lingers in the introduction for far too long by explaining how important it is to write about this subject, after which they no longer have room to explain it clearly.
• "The Stream-of-Consciousness Ramble": this writing error occurs when a writer does not try to structure his or her thoughts, but simply puts everything on paper that he or she can think of.
• "The Knee-Jerk Reaction": this writing error occurs when a writer writes down his or her own first reaction to the subject without having thought about it in greater depth.
• "The Glancing Glow": in this case a writer avoids the subject. For example, someone who has to write about the benefits of cycling only talks about when people first started cycling.
• The 'Let the Reader Do the Work': a writer who is guilty of this fallacy, describes information that does not matter and sometimes talks about one topic and then follows it up with a completely different topic, so that the reader himself must find the common thread of the story.

In addition, there are some tips for this within your essay; avoid clichés, be specific, don't exaggerate, avoid rhetorical questions and never, never generalize.

Convince something of someone through your essay

Sometimes an essay is written to convince readers of something – this is called a persuasive essay. If you write for readers who think critically, it is important to pay attention to the following five points:

1. Try to look at your own opinion from the point of view of someone who disagrees with you.
2. If you want to criticize the opinion of the counterparty, don't be offensive. Stay polite.
3. If someone with a different opinion has a good argument, admit it.
4. If you have limited time, try to talk only about the most important things.
5. Make sure you present your strongest arguments first.

What else is important when you write an essay?

When writing an essay, it is important that no assumptions are made regarding gender, ethnic background, religion and sexual orientation. Writing in a sexist or racist way immediately gives the impression that you are not objective. It is striking, for example, that when people differ in terms of skin colour or ethnic origin, this is explicitly stated, while this is often not the case when people are white. You will find the concept ‘a gay, Latino male’ quicker in texts than a ‘straight white woman’. If something is what we consider ‘the norm’, we tend to not mention it and vice versa. It is important to take this into account when writing your essay and avoid the fallacy.

Practice questions

1. When is a term called "vague"?
2. When is there "ambiguity"?
3. Which three types of ambiguities are distinguished?
4. List three goals of definitions.
5. What types of definitions are there?
6. Which components does an essay consist of?

Answers practice questions

1. A term is called vague when it is not clear what the limits of the concept are.
2. Ambiguity occurs when a word or sentence has more than one meaning and can therefore be understood in different ways.
3. Three types of ambiguity are: (1) semantic, (2) group related, and (3) syntactic ambiguity.
4. Examples of correct answers are three of the following four: (1) through definitions we can know what words mean, (2) on the basis of definitions we can give special meaning to a word in some contexts, (3) we use definitions to avoid vagueness, ambiguity and generalization, and (4) definitions can be used to convince people.
5. There are three types of definitions: (1) definitions based on examples, (2) definitions based on synonyms, and (3) analytical definitions.
6. An essay consists of four components: (1) a clarification of the topic, (2) an explanation of one's own opinion about that topic, (3) arguments that support one's own opinion, and (4) invalidating people's arguments who have a different opinion on the subject.