Bar-Tal (2007). Sociopsychological foundations of intractable conflicts. - Article summary

There are several characteristics of an intractable conflict:

1. Protracted
   The conflict persists for at least a generation.
2. Violent
   The conflict involves physical violence in which society members are killed and wounded in either wars (1), small-scale military engagements (2) or terrorist attacks (3).
3. Perceived as irresolvable
   The conflict involves the perception that it is impossible to resolve it peacefully.
4. Demand extensive investment
   The participants of the conflict make vast material and psychological investments to cope with the situation.
5. Total
   The conflict is a total conflict. It is perceived as being about essential and basic goals, needs or values that are seen as indispensable for the society’s existence (e.g. the conflict often involves issues of territory, self-determination, statehood, economy, religion or culture).
6. Perceived as zero-sum in nature
   The conflict does not include compromises and adheres to the original goals. The loss of the other party is seen as a gain.
7. Central
   The conflict occupies a central place in the lives of the individual society members and the society as a whole.

The seven features fluctuate in intensity over time. The longevity of the conflict results in both parties accumulating animosity and hostility. The consequences of violence are seen as a problem of society and thus the society takes the responsibility to treat and compensate victims to prevent reoccurrence of the violence.

Adaptation to the intractable conflict requires satisfying needs that remain deprived during intractable conflict (e.g. need for safety) (1), requires that people learn to cope with stress (2) and requires the development of psychological conditions that will be lead people to attempt to withstand the conflict (3).

The socio-psychological infrastructure in intractable conflict consists of collective memories (1), ethos of conflict (2) and collective emotional orientation (3).

Societal beliefs refer to cognitions shared by society members on topics and issues that are of special concern for their society and contribute to their sense of uniqueness. The content of societal beliefs refer to characteristics (1), structures (2) and processes occurring in society (3) and cover different domains of societal life. The societal beliefs provide a basis for common understanding of reality (1), good communication (2), interdependence (3) and the coordination of social activities (4). The societal beliefs constitute the perceived common element in the reality of the society members.

Collective memory evolves to present the history of the conflict to society members. These memories do not intend to provide an objective history of the past (1) and are shared and treated as a truthful account of the history of the society (2). The collective memories provide a black and white picture which enables parsimonious, fast, unequivocal and simple understanding of the history of the conflict.

The societal beliefs of collective memory justify the outbreak of the conflict (1), present a positive image of the in-group (2), delegitimize the opponent (3) and present’s one’s society as the victim of the opponent (4).

Ethos refers to a narrative about the present. It refers to the configuration of shared central societal beliefs that provide a particular dominant orientation to a society at present and for the future. It connects members of society between the present and the goals and aspirations of the future.

The ethos of conflict gives a general orientation and direction and provides a clear picture of the conflict, its goals, its conditions requirements and images of the in-group society and of the rival.

The challenges of the intractable conflict lead to the development of eight themes that comprise the ethos of conflict:

• Societal beliefs about the justness of own goals.
• Societal beliefs about security
• Societal beliefs of positive collective self-image.
• Societal beliefs of own victimization.
• Societal beliefs of delegitimizing the opponent
• Societal beliefs of patriotism
• Societal beliefs of unity
• Societal beliefs of peace

The collective memory and the ethos of conflict complement each other. Societies involved in intractable conflict tend to be dominated by a number of collective emotional orientations (e.g. collective fear orientation and collective hatred).

The sociopsychological infrastructure (i.e. societal beliefs of collective memory and of ethos of conflict) has several functions:

1. It fulfils the need of illuminating the conflict situation (i.e. meaning making and coping with stress).
2. It serves to justify the acts of the in-group toward the enemy.
3. It creates a sense of differentiation and superiority (i.e. sharpens intergroup differences).
4. It prepares society members to be ready for threatening and violent acts of the enemy and difficult life conditions.
5. It motivates for solidarity, mobilization and action.
6. It fulfils the role of contributing to the formation, maintenance and strengthening of a social identity that reflects the last conditions and experiences of the intractable conflict.

Social identity combines identifications with different groups. The formation of social identity is based on a self-categorization process in which individuals group themselves cognitively as belonging to the same social category. Intractable conflict affects social identity. In times of conflict, people tend to increase their sense of identification with the society (1), social identity supplies strength to society members (2) and enhanced social identity provides the basis for unity, solidarity and coordination needed to cope with the conflict (3). When social identity is dominated by meanings that provide ethos of conflict and collective memory, it supports the continuation of the conflict.

The process of institutionalization of the sociopsychological infrastructure is characterized by extensive sharing (1), wide application (2), expression in cultural products (3) and appearance in educational materials (4).