There are three limitations to theory and research in intergroup relations:

1. There is a tendency to focus on feelings and perceptions rather than behaviour.
   There are a lot of theories that attempt to predict strong negative feelings in groups of disadvantaged people. This is not focused on the behaviour as a result of the strong negative feelings.
2. There is a failure to study a full array of behavioural options.
   There is often only one form of action measured, rather than the full array of behavioural options.
3. There is a reductionist nature of dominant theories of intergroup relations.
   There is often an extrapolation from intergroup relations to intergroup context.

A group member engages in collective action anytime that the person acts as a representative of the group and the action is directed at improving the condition of the entire group. Individual action is behaviour that is directed at improving one’s personal condition. Normative actions are actions that conforms to the norms of the existing social structure. Non-normative actions are actions that do not conform to the norms of the existing social structure.

There are five categories of behaviour:

1. Apparent acceptance of one’s disadvantaged position.
2. Attempts at individual upward mobility through normative channels made available by the system.
3. Individual action outside the norms of the system.
4. Instigation of collective action within the prescribed norms of the existing system.
5. Instigation of collective action outside the prescribed norms of the existing system.

The presence of dissatisfaction or the intensity of negative feelings does not predict the type of action. The presence of alternatives to the disadvantaged situation leads to collective action to improve the position of the disadvantaged group. The absence of alternatives to the disadvantaged situation leads to individual attempts at upward mobility or acceptance of the disadvantaged position. However, it is unclear when group members perceive a situation as unstable or illegitimate, meaning that there are alternatives.

The five-stage model states that the perception of intergroup situation determines the response of disadvantaged group members. A person will start with individual, normative actions. However, if constant attempts for individual progression are blocked, then the social system will be questioned, accompanied by increased dissatisfaction with the disadvantaged position and more interest in collective action. This model holds that collective action will only be initiated if the advantaged group is perceived as closed.

People use individual, normative action if the advantaged group is perceived as open. However, this might only be true for individuals who are near meeting the criterion for entrance into the advantaged group. If the advantaged group is partially open, people tend to show little endorsement of collective action and will prefer individual actions.

People accept their position if the group is perceived as open but they are not near the entry requirement.

Collective, non-normative action may only be used when the opportunity of personal advancement is completely removed.

The absence of a normative strategy does not necessarily lead to non-normative action. When the actions of the advantaged group are highly inconsistent with previously established norms of the system, normative action is perceived as ineffective.