Lifespan development refers to the study on sexuality across the lifespan. The Kinsey reports and the NHSLS (Laumann et al., 1994) are the main sources of studying sex. Surveys are often being used, but they are subject to errors with recall and memory. Another option is studying sexual behaviour and arousal. Especially research of sexuality in children is very problematic in this sense and brings ethical concerns. Freud was one of the first to acknowledge sexuality in children. The capacity to show sexual responses are present from birth. Reflex erections even happen before birth in the uterus. The first intimate relation that is experiences is with a parent, especially with the mother. This relationship involves a lot of physical contact can produces a sensuous response. There are several concepts that are important in studying infant and preschool sexuality.Attachment refers to the bond between infant and mother, father or caregiver. The bond starts to form right after birth and continues until the end of infancy. Attachment is the first encounter with emotional intimacy and love. The capacity of romantic attachment is based on the attachment style that an...
What does the field of sexuality entail? - Chapter 1Sexual behaviour is a diverse phenomenon and occurs in several physical situations, social contexts and is experienced differently by everyone. Everyone has a complex set of motivations and external influences that determine the decision to engage in sexual behaviour. It is difficult to answer all the questions about sexuality within one discipline. The study of sexuality is important for the following reasons:
The exchange of sexual information is a taboo in many societies.
For many people, sexuality is an important motivation in life.
Some people experience difficulties and problems with their sexual functioning.
The definition of gender is whether someone is male, female or other, such as trans. However, sometimes the word sex is used to describe gender, for example on a job application form. Most of the times sex refers to sexual behaviour or reproduction. The ambiguity in the use of the word sex causes confusion. In the context of this book, the term sex describes sexual activity and gender refers to being male, female or other. Besides the ambiguity in the use of the word sex, there are other problems with the difference between sex and gender. A lot of contemporary research is based on the gender binary, this is the notion that there are only two genders, being male and female. Also, the activities that are included in sex are debatable. Biologists describe sex as every behaviour that can cause the encounter of an egg-cell and sperm-cell. However, sexual behaviour is not only used for reproduction, but also for recreation. Therefore, in this book, sexual behaviour is described as behaviour that cause arousal and increases the chance of an orgasm.
Until about one hundred years ago the sexual available knowledge came from religious sources. The ancient Greek already told myths about the existence of hetero -and homosexuality. This way they could understand these sexual orientations. In Christianity they believed that having a “wet dream” was caused by having sex with the mythical creatures’ incubi and succubi. The person having the
.....read more What are the theoretical perspectives on sexuality? - Chapter 2According to Freud, nothing is more important than the choice for a reproductive mate. He views sex in terms of libido, which can be expressed with sexual behaviour. On the other hand, Bandura would argue that sexual arousal leading to an orgasm is a positive reinforcement that will lead to the couple repeating this act more often.
The evolutionary biology to understand social behaviour in animals is called socio-biology. The socio-biologist will study human sexual behaviour by examining patterns in other species. From the evolution perspective the most important function of sex is producing healthy offspring. This happens through sexual selection, in which animals that are best at adapting to their environment will survive. Humans choose their mates based on physical attractiveness, which according to the socio-biologist is a way of evaluating one’s health and vigor. This could indicate a better offspring. However, if people only chose mates based on maximum reproductive success, attractiveness should be a more important indicator of mate selection in unhealthy countries.
There are several hindrances that can occur with reproduction, two of them are infant vulnerability and maternal death. The first is reduced when the mother is providing care continuously, including breastfeeding. Also, a pair-bond between mother and father and attachment between the child and its parents limit infant vulnerability. Parental investment means that parents are more interested in the survival of their own offspring and will invest significant resources to achieve this. Darwin proposed that sexual selection creates differences between females and males. There are two processes involved:
The competition of representatives from one gender (often males) for access to mating members of another gender.
Preferential choice by representatives from one gender (often females) for certain members of another gender.
This means that species compete among themselves in the mating process. The socio-biologic perspective has been criticized. Researchers argue that the biological determinism is an old-fashioned version of evolution and sex is no longer only reproductive.
Evolutionary psychology focuses on psychological mechanisms, altered by natural selection. Behaviours that evolved as a result of sexual selection can be considered cognitive or emotional. People can have different strategies in choosing a partner for reproduction. A short-term strategy is when one chooses a partner based on immediate resources, such as food or money. A long-term strategy could be to
.....read more What kind of research in the field of sexology is there? - Chapter 3Over the last few years there have been major improvements in sex research. The methods can differ on the following:
The measurement of sexuality: this can be self-report, biological measures or observation.
The number of subjects studied, either large or small groups.
Whether studies take place in the field or in a laboratory.
Sex can be manipulated or studied in natural occurrence.
It is important to study and understand these techniques and their limitations. It gives a better understanding in current sex research, but also in the research that is yet to come.
The first thing that needs to be decided is how to measure sexuality. There are several methods available:
Self-reports are the most common way and exist of questions about people’s sexuality. They can be conducted on paper, with interviews or online.
Behavioural measures include direct observation where participants are observed, and the behaviour is described. Another behavioural measure is eye-tracking where participants’ eye movements are studied when they look at images on a computer. Illegal sexual behaviour is studies using police reports. In the FBI they use uniform crime reports to study illegal sexuality. However, it only detects cases that are reported to the police.
Implicit measures include the implicit associations test in which the strength of associations to sexual content is measured. People tend to respond faster when an association is stronger. People are asked to divide sexual images or text into categories, such as pleasant and unpleasant.
Biological measures are measures of response to sex. There are genital measures in which arousal is measured by vaginal changes in women and erection changes in men. MRI and fMRI are now increasingly being used, they look at autonomy and brain regions involved in sexual behaviour. Strengths are its normativity, but limitations are the complicated statistical research needed to read the results and there is a lot of noise if the participant does not lie completely still in the scanner. Also, the results depend on the choice of sets of stimuli.
One important consideration
.....read more What are the differences in sexual anatomy for men and women? - Chapter 4The purpose of this chapter is to provide information about the functionality of parts of the reproductive organs.
The female sexual organs are divided into external -and internal organs.
The external organs are the clitoris, the inner lips, the mons pubis, the vaginal opening and the outer lips. Together they are called the vulva. Its appearance differs from one woman to another.
The clitoris is a sensitive organ that is important in sexual response. It exists from the tip (glans), two copora cavernosa, a knob of tissue and two crura. They develop before birth and the gender organs of one gender are homologous. The clitoris of the female is homologous to the male’s penis because they exist from the same embryonic tissue. The clitoris is also erectile and fills with blood as the penis does. The clitoris is unique because it has no reproductive function.
The mons pubis is the rounded and fatty part of tissue covered in pubic hairs.
The labia is the part along both sides of the opening of the vagina and also covered with pubic hairs. The Bartholin glands lie inside the inner lips and do not have a significant function. The perineum is the area between the anus and the vagina. The introitus is the opening of the vagina itself. Urine does not pass through the clitoris itself, but through the urethra, which is a separate opening.
The hymen is a thin membrane that partly covers the opening of the vagina. It has some openings for menstrual fluid. It can be opened or stretched when the penis moves into the vagina. The hymen may be taken as a sign of virginity as it typically breaks when first having intercourse. However, a women without a hymen can still be a virgin, some girls are just born without.
The internal organs consist of the vestibular bulbs, the skene’s glands, the vagina, a pair of fallopian tubes and a pair of ovaries.
The vagina is the organ in which the penis is inserted during sex. It is also referred to as the birth canal or introitus. The cervix at the lower part of the uterus is connected to the top. The walls of the vagina have three layers. The inner part of the vagina is sensitive to erotic stimulation. Around the vagina there is the pubococcygeus muscle, which is stretched during childbirth.
The vestibular bulbs are two small organs that lie on either side of the vaginal wall.
The skene’s gland
What are sex hormones, sexual differentiation and the menstrual cycle? - Chapter 5During the prenatal period most differences between men and women arise. This complex process is named: parental sexual differentiation. In this chapter the process of the menstrual cycle and sexual differentiation is discussed.
The chemical substances that are created by the endocrine glands and secreted into the bloodstream are called hormones. The effects of hormones are felt rapidly through its secretion into the bloodstream. The hormones that are most important for sex are the following:
Testosterone, this hormone belongs to the group called androgens.
Oestrogens
Progesterone
The endocrine glands that are of interest are those for sex, these are the testes in males and the ovaries in females. The pituitary gland is related to the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus regulates the pituitary, which regulates the ovaries and the testes. Therefore, it has the nickname of master gland. The hypothalamus plays a role in vital behaviours such as drinking, easting and having sex. The pituitary, hypothalamus and gonads (which are the ovaries and testes) work together to regulate the functions needed for sex.
Both the testes and the pituitary produce hormones, the most important one in men is testosterone. It has a function in maintaining and stimulating the secondary characteristics of sex, such as beard growth. It also is responsible for maintaining genitals and their production of sperm and for stimulation of the bones and muscles. The pituitary produces two important hormones, both hormones influence the functioning of the testes.
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): controls sperm production.
Luteinizing hormone (LH): controls testosterone production.
Because of the negative feedback loop between the pituitary, the testes and the hypothalamus, the testosterone levels in males remain relatively constant. The level of the LH and FSH hormone is regulated by gonadotropin-releasing hormone or GnRH. This hormone is secreted by the hypothalamus. The feedback loop, where the hypothalamus monitors the testosterone levels and influences the level of GnRH, is called the HPG-axis. When testosterone levels are high, the hypothalamus produces GnRH to make sure the pituitary stops producing as much LH. This negative feedback loop is important for keeping the testosterone level constant. The hormone inhibin is produced by the Sertoli cells in the testes. It regulates FSH in
.....read more What are the main notes on conception, pregnancy & childbirth? - Chapter 6When a woman is ovulating, the egg is released from the follicle into the ovary and enters the fallopian tube. It starts its journey to the uterus when it is fertilized in about five days. If the egg is not fertilized it degenerates in forty-eight hours. When the sperm is inserted into the vagina it starts its way towards the egg. The sperm is a very tiny cell and exists from the head, midpiece and tail. Sperm contains both RNA and DNA carrying instructions for development of the embryo. Conception does not happen in the uterus, but in the outer part of the fallopian tube. The sperm is attracted to the egg by a chemical attractant. Sperm produces hyaluronidase, which dissolves the thin layer around the egg called zona pellucida. When an egg is fertilized it is called a zygote. In the first eight weeks the conceptus is called embryo and after that foetus.
The most important way to improve conception is to have intercourse while the woman is ovulating. The best way to determine when a woman is ovulating is to measure body temperature. On the day of the ovulation the temperature drops, and the day after it rises again. Sperm can live in the woman’s body for five days meaning intercourse could also take place a few days before the ovulation. Also, regular intercourse (every day or every two days) is important for the male’s sperm count. The position of intercourse is important for an optimal flow of sperm into the vagina. Finally, lubricants should not be used as they might kill or block the sperm.
The “silent struggle” between conceptus and pregnant woman is about the competition for nutrients. The placenta determines the flow
.....read more What do the elements of conception and abortion entail? - Chapter 7Contraception is not as controversial as it used to be. Nowadays effective anticonception methods are available for a variety of reasons. For example, people who are not in a relationship typically want to prevent pregnancy. The fact that anticonception is becoming more ordinary has a positive impact on the number of teen pregnancies, especially in the United States. Another good reason is the reduction of healthcare costs by avoiding unnecessary abortions.
Hormonal methods are very effective. The methods include the pill, the patch, the vaginal ring and injections.
The combination birth control pill contains progestin, oestrogen and a synthetic progesterone in slightly higher levels than normal. The pill needs to be taken for twenty-one days with a placebo or no-pill seven days in between. There are variations on this number of placebos versus active pills. The pill prevents ovulation by heightening levels of oestrogen and progesterone, and thus inhibiting FSH and LH production. Progestin makes the tissue very thick so implantation if the eggs were fertilized is almost impossible. In the placebo days, when progestin and oestrogen are not taken, a withdrawal bleeding takes place.
The failure rate or pregnancy rate is the number of women who become pregnant during a year of contraception. There is the failure rate for perfect users and the failure rate for typical users. The failure rate for perfect users is about 0.3% and 9% for typical users. One side effect of the pill is disease in the circular system. Women on the pill have a higher risk on the development of blood clots and high blood pressure. Other side effects are nausea, weight gain, the increasement of vaginal discharge and heightened change of getting chlamydia.
Advantages of the pill are its effectiveness and it does not intervene with sex. It also reduces cramps and lowers the amount of menstrual flow. Besides the side effects, the correct intake of the pill can be a burden on women with a busy lifestyle. Also, when people do not engage in sex often, the pill can be a contraceptive overkill. Getting pregnant can take about three months after stopping the pill, but the rates are the same as women who never took the pill. Combinations with other drugs can decrease the effectiveness.
What is meant by sexual arousal? - Chapter 8Sexual expression contributes to an overall good mental health. Understanding sexual arousal is also important in understanding sexual dysfunctions.
Sexual response commonly happens in three stages: excitement, orgasm and resolution. The physiological mechanisms are myotonia and vasocongestion. Vasocongestion takes place when a major deal of blood flows in regional blood vessels, such as the genitals. It is a result of dilation of these blood vessels. Myotonia is the contraction of the muscles throughout the body, so not only in the genitals.
The excitement phase is the start of sexual arousal. Vasocongestion causes the erection in males, it happens when the corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum fill with blood. Factors such as alcohol, fatigue and age can slow down this process. Several neurotransmitters are involved in this process, for instance, Viagra works on the nitric oxide neurotransmitter. To reverse the erection, the neurotransmitters epinephrine and norepinephrine are involved. In women, a critical sexual response is lubrication of the vagina. This is also a result of vasocongestion. The blood flow through the walls of the vagina causes the capillaries to dilate. Fluid can then seep trough the membranes of the vaginal walls. It does not happen as fast after presentation of arousing sexual stimulation as it does with men. Female response to these stimuli is also affected by age, alcohol intake and fatigue.
When the woman gets closer to an orgasm, the orgasmic platform forms. This is the narrowing of the muscle around the entrance of the vagina. When a woman is excited, the tip of the clitoris is swollen and is harder than normally. Relaxation of the muscle that surrounds the arteries allows for a great blood flow to the genitals. Nitric oxide is also the main neurotransmitter involved. One effect from myotonia is that the nipples erect, this is both present for males and females. During arousal the inner lips of the vaginal walls swell and open. The opening of the vagina is also called the ballooning response. This helps the entrance of the penis. Later in the phase of excitement, the two processes of myotonia and vasocongestion built up to the orgasm.
The orgasm in males exists from contractions of the pelvic organs. In the preliminary stage of the orgasm the prostate, seminal vesicles contract and the vas
.....read more How does sexuality change in the childhood and adolescence? - Chapter 9Lifespan development refers to the study on sexuality across the lifespan.
The Kinsey reports and the NHSLS (Laumann et al., 1994) are the main sources of studying sex. Surveys are often being used, but they are subject to errors with recall and memory. Another option is studying sexual behaviour and arousal. Especially research of sexuality in children is very problematic in this sense and brings ethical concerns.
Freud was one of the first to acknowledge sexuality in children. The capacity to show sexual responses are present from birth. Reflex erections even happen before birth in the uterus. The first intimate relation that is experiences is with a parent, especially with the mother. This relationship involves a lot of physical contact can produces a sensuous response. There are several concepts that are important in studying infant and preschool sexuality.
Attachment refers to the bond between infant and mother, father or caregiver. The bond starts to form right after birth and continues until the end of infancy. Attachment is the first encounter with emotional intimacy and love. The capacity of romantic attachment is based on the attachment style that an infant had with its parents.
Self-stimulation occurs in infants, around the age of sex to twelve children start to touch their own genitals. This behaviour is quite normal and even orgasms are possible.
Child-child encounters occur from the age of four to five, when children become more social. Children may hug each other or hold hands. Some children learn about heterosexual behaviour by seeing their parents have sex, or witnessing the primal scene. According to Freud this could inhibit one’s sexual development.
Sexual knowledge and interests start in the preschool years. Children become interested in different forms of urinating and children enjoy hugging and kissing their parents. They also learn about marriage.
Knowledge about gender starts around the age of two or three. Children start to develop a gender identity. Some children start to exhibit cross-gender behaviour. Others might experience gender dysphoria.
How does sexuality change in the adulthood? - Chapter 10In the United States, the decline of marriage and the rise of new families caused a big change in sexuality in adulthood. This is true for sexual orientation, monogamy, marital sexuality and cohabitation.
The sexual development starts from childhood and by the time people are in their adulthood they are aware of their sexual orientation -and identity. The identification of our sexual preferences is a form of maturity in sexual unfolding. Learning to communicate with sexual partners is difficult for a lot of people, because of the lack of role models in our society. Other problems are responsibility about sex and the development of the capacity for intimacy. The never married group of adults are individuals that intended to marry but did not and people who intended to stay single. Many persons are involved in serial monogamy, which is the occurrence of two or more intimate relationships prior to marriage. Why unmarried people have this status can have both voluntary and involuntary reasons. A virgin is described as someone who never had intercourse, rarely dated and has not engaged in sexual intimacy. Many singles that often report unsatisfying sexual encounters have a harder time in sustaining romantic relationships. Singleism is the stereotyping and stigmatization of people that are not in a couple relationship that is socially recognised.
The singles scene is the institutionalised opportunity for singles after the age of twenty-five to meet a partner. The nightclub is such a place and many people engage in sporting rituals and game-oriented cultural scripts to participate. Apps, such as grinder and tinder can also enable people to find each other. Cell phones play a significant role in the meeting of potential (romantic) partners. Black men and women are more likely to remain single.
A living apart together relationship or LAT is a relationship between unmarried people who live in separate houses but consider themselves a couple. Cohabitation is a way for trying out a committed residential relationship. Cohabitation is becoming a popular alternative to marriage.
The decision
.....read more What do the aspects of attraction, love and communication entail? - Chapter 11The sexual standard for many people is that there should be a close connection between two people before engaging in sex. Therefore, the social -and emotional component of love should be discussed.
There has been extensive research on attraction and there are many forms of interpersonal attraction that will be discussed.
What are the differences in gender concerning sexuality? - Chapter 12Gender is one of the most basic status characteristics. People feel uncomfortable with uncertainty about another person’s gender. This is rooted in the gender binary, the classification of people into either the category male of female.
The emphasis on gender in societies is codified with gender roles, this is a set of norms or culturally defined expectations to define how people of one gender should behave. A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people that differs those people from others. Heterosexuality is an important part of gender roles and stereotypes.
Gender roles are a product of culture. Intersectionality is the approach where the meaning and consequences of the use of multiple categories for difference, identity and disadvantage. Effects of gender should not be considered in isolation, but the category woman should be accompanied by the categories that also apply in this woman, such as ethnicity, social class, religion and sexual orientation. People then may be part of both a privileged and disadvantaged group.
Which aspects does sexual orientation entail? - Chapter 13Sexual orientation depends on the person someone is sexually attracted to with a potential for loving. A homosexual is sexually attracted to people from the same gender. A heterosexual has a sexual orientation towards the other gender and bisexual is sexually oriented towards both genders. The term homosexual comes from the word homo, which means same. The term lesbian also comes from the ancient Greeks and is used to refer to female homosexuals. Gay activists prefer gay over homosexual because there are many bad connotations to homosexuality. A heterosexual is called straight. The definition of queer is a term that embraces gay, lesbian and transgender people. The abbreviation LGB can also be used to describe lesbian, gay -and transgender, another term is sexual minority.
People’s attitudes on one another are influenced by sexual orientation. Especially heteronormativity, which is the belief that heterosexuality is the norm, influences stereotyping about sexual minority groups. Negative stereotypes and attitudes lead to discrimination and crime against gays and lesbians. In America, many people disapprove homosexuality and some experts even believe their attitudes can be described as homophobia. This is the irrational fear in combination with fixed negative attitudes towards homosexuals. When these feelings are not strong enough to be named phobia, these negative attitudes are called anti-gay prejudice. These people also express heterosexism, the belief that everyone is heterosexual. The most severe expression of heterosexism are hate crimes against LGBs. These incidents have a high psychological toll on the people belonging to sexual minorities that are being harassed. The media plays a role in the anti-gay attitudes. Currently there are more representations of sexual minorities and they are more visible in the media, however they are often still stereotyped, whether this is a positive or a negative one.
Gays and lesbians belong to a minority group and suffer from discrimination. In America, an experiment was conducted to research job discrimination for gay men. They found that job interviews for gays were shorter and rated more negatively. Homosexuals have the advantage of being able to hide that they are part of a minority and get along with heterosexuals. This is also a disadvantage because lying about
.....read more Which variations in sexual behavior are there? - Chapter 14Scientists have the tendency to describe behaviour in terms of normal or abnormal. Abnormal sexual behaviour is described with the following terms: sexual deviance, sexual variance, paraphilias and perversion.
One approach in describing abnormal behaviour is the statistical definition, it classifies rare and uncommon sexual behaviour as abnormal. In the sociological approach the dependence on culture is acknowledged. Abnormal sexual behaviour is described as deviant in the society. The psychological approach (Buss, 1966) describes abnormal sexual behaviour as inefficient, bizarre and discomforting. The medical approach is classified by the DSM. It recognises eight forms of abnormalities: sexual masochism, frotteurism, sexual sadism, fetishism, voyeurism, transvestism, pedophilia and exhibitionism.
The definition of paraphilia is the intense sexual interest in sexual stimulation other than with normal human partners. Paraphilia is not necessarily a mental disorder but might require intervention. When the person feels great distress either caused by societal pressure or unwilling sexual partners the paraphilia can be classified a disorder. The general diagnostic criteria described in the DSM are:
It can be difficult to distinguish normal from abnormal sexual behaviour. Many people hold mild fetishes, such as the fetish for exciting lingerie. Also, forty-two percent of people reported they engaged in voyeurism and thirty-five percent engaged in frottage, this is sexual rubbing against a woman while in a crowd (Templeman & Stinnett, 1991). The fetish becomes abnormal when it gets more extreme or when it becomes a necessity.
Fetishism means having a sexual fixation on an object other than a human. Also, a great erotic significance is attached to this object. A fetishistic disorder is when urges, behaviour or fantasies for a non-living object enhances or produces sexual desire without or with the partner. It should last for at least six months and cause significant distress. In some cases, people are unable to get an orgasm unless the object is present. There are two types of fetishes: media
.....read more What is meant by sexual coercing? - Chapter 15In this chapter sexual coercing is discussed. Rape, child sexual abuse and sexual harassment are studied.
The definition of rape is the non-consensual vaginal, oral or anal penetration obtained by force. The most important point is that the victim did not consent to it. The impact is high, psychological distress such as depression, suicide ideation and attempt, anxiety and posttraumatic stress are often reported after rape. The long-term psychological distress suffered by someone who experiences an uncontrollable and terrifying event is called posttraumatic stress disorder. Symptoms are depression, nightmares, lack of feeling safe and depression. People with PTSD form a schema with information about the traumatic event and their responses. This schema is involved in triggering cues and feelings of terror after the event took place. There are several factors that are associated with the severity of psychological outcomes:
Self-blame is experienced sometimes by women after they were being raped. This is linked to worsen the psychological outcomes. Besides psychological, there are also physiological effects of rape. People can experience bleedings, get pregnant or get a sexually transmitted disease. Posttraumatic growth is the positive life change after trauma.
Most rape is conducted by people in the inner circle of the victim. Date rape is the most common, especially on college campuses. It can be the result of miscommunication where a man misperceives the intentions of a woman. A big problem today is the existence of Rohypnol, a date-rape drug that causes drowsiness or sleep. Marital rape or intimate partner rape is also quite common, and the consequences are no less severe. Motives include power, domination, sadism, anger and sexual desire.
There are several views of the theoretical causes of rape:
What are the aspects related to sex for sale? - Chapter 16In many societies the exchange of money and sex is a prominent feature. A lot of money is made in the porn industry and prostitution. These subjects involve controversial -and legal issues, but also attract a lot of customers.
People that engage in partnered sex and are rewarded with material gifts, money or other payment are considered commercial sex workers or prostitutes. The venue where this sex word takes place depends on the client and type of sex worker.
What sexual disorders are there? - Chapter 17Sexual disorders cause a big deal of psychological distress. A sexual disorder is described as a problem with responses in sexuality that cause mental distress. Another term is sexual dysfunction. Defining a sexual disorder is not straightforward because the disorders are spread over a continuum. There is a distinction between a lifelong sexual disorder that was present from the moment sexual development began and an acquired sexual disorder, which developed after some time of normal sexual functioning.
There are two types of disorders concerning sexual desire: hypoactive -and discrepancy of sexual desire.
In the DSM the distinction between male hypoactive sexual desire disorder and female sexual interest/arousal disorder is now made to split the disorder. There might be a third category needed to represent other genders.
There are two types of disorders with sexual arousal, they include the female sexual arousal disorder and the male erectile disorder.
What kind of sexually transmitted infections are there? - Chapter 18It is important to know, how to prevent and treat sexually transmitted diseases (STD) or sexually transmitted infections (STI). Sexually transmitted infections are more common among youth, age fifteen to twenty-four and the infections human papillomavirus (HPV), trichomoniasis and chlamydia are the most common. Prevention efforts are not working as well as they should as this age group accounts for half of the STIs in the United States.
An example of a STI caused by a bacterium is Chlamydia, the chlamydia trachomatis is a bacterium that can be transmitted trough sexual contact. It can infect the genital organs of both men and women. Adolescent girls have a particularly high infection rate of chlamydia compared to Gonorrhea. This is important, because the symptoms can be similar, but the treatment for Gonorrhea does not work for Chlamydia. The symptoms are discomforting urination and it can be detected using a urine sample (or sample of cells in the vagina). The problem with Chlamydia is that about seventy-five percent of the women, and fifty percent of men do not have any symptoms, they are asymptomatic. Therefore, many people go untreated. This can cause urethral damage, infection of the epididymis and proctitis (in men that performed anal intercourse). The most extreme complication is pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and infertility. Also, a baby born from a mother with Chlamydia can develop eye infections or pneumonia. Chlamydia can be treated with azithromycin or doxycycline. There is no vaccine available for Chlamydia yet, but it is being developed. The best prevention method is the consistent use of a condom.
Human papillomavirus or HPV is a virus that increases the risk of specific cancers, such as cervical cancer. It also causes genital warts, there are warts appearing around the urethral opening, the scrotum or the shaft of the penis. For women the warts appear on the walls of the vagina or the cervix. Most people with HPV are asymptomatic. Not all infections with HPV cause cancer but it is the most important risk factor for developing cervical cancer. Oral sex can transmit HPV and people who get HPV trough oral sex have a higher risk for mouth and throat cancer. However, in most cases HPV infections go away within two
.....read more What are the aspects of ethics and religion related to sexuality? - Chapter 19The reasons for evaluating ethics in sexuality is for two reasons: the first is ethical and religious considerations must be taken into account when scientists describe sexuality. The second is the personal importance of ethics and the influence of ethics on personal decision making.
Fundamentally, ethics refers to right or wrong. It also refers to a set of principles put together by a specific group of people. When there are two things that are desired, ethics are used to choose among them. Sexual decisions are integrated in our pattern of decision making. Religion provides an ethical code and provides rules, rewards and sanctions. It helps create culture and thus is an important influence on individuals and shapes a society’s orientation towards sexuality. There are some basic terms that are important in the discussion about ethics:
Old religious and ethical systems are called old morality and the situationist approach is part of new morality.
Ethical traditions deal with norms on sexual behaviour, here are some examples of (mostly) Western sexual ethics in the past.
Which laws concerning sex are there? - Chapter 20Many sexual behaviours, such as adultery or sex with someone younger than eighteen are crimes in the United States. There are several laws that tell people about their sexual behaviour.
Laws about sex are ancient and has its roots in the Hebrew Bible. These rules were used to regulate the religious morals. Even though sex has become a much more private subject, most societies have laws for sexual behaviour. These rules should free people from sexual assault and coercion and that children should not be sexually exploited. Fornication is illegal because this often results in extramarital births. It is compelling that the Judeo-Christian religion still determines some sexual laws since constitution forbids imposing others with religious beliefs. However, these sexual laws resemble rather moral than religious belief. The Victorian compromise refers to the conflict in attitudes about sexuality and results in the law not criminalizing the behaviour per se, but the conduct that is visible to the outside world. The study of sex and the law reflects inequality, sexuality, sexual identities and individuality of a society.
The categorization of sexual laws is difficult because no-one knows how many there are. Civil law, in addition to criminal law might penalize certain sexual behaviours with regards to government employees and immigration regulations. Also, the laws (on sex) are constantly changing, therefore the authors attempt to give a broad overview of the different kinds of sex laws.
What does the field of sexuality entail? - Chapter 1Sexual behaviour is a diverse phenomenon and occurs in several physical situations, social contexts and is experienced differently by everyone. Everyone has a complex set of motivations and external influences that determine the decision to engage in sexual behaviour. It is difficult to answer all the questions about sexuality within one discipline. The study of sexuality is important for the following reasons:
The exchange of sexual information is a taboo in many societies.
For many people, sexuality is an important motivation in life.
Some people experience difficulties and problems with their sexual functioning.
The definition of gender is whether someone is male, female or other, such as trans. However, sometimes the word sex is used to describe gender, for example on a job application form. Most of the times sex refers to sexual behaviour or reproduction. The ambiguity in the use of the word sex causes confusion. In the context of this book, the term sex describes sexual activity and gender refers to being male, female or other. Besides the ambiguity in the use of the word sex, there are other problems with the difference between sex and gender. A lot of contemporary research is based on the gender binary, this is the notion that there are only two genders, being male and female. Also, the activities that are included in sex are debatable. Biologists describe sex as every behaviour that can cause the encounter of an egg-cell and sperm-cell. However, sexual behaviour is not only used for reproduction, but also for recreation. Therefore, in this book, sexual behaviour is described as behaviour that cause arousal and increases the chance of an orgasm.
Until about one hundred years ago the sexual available knowledge came from religious sources. The ancient Greek already told myths about the existence of hetero -and homosexuality. This way they could understand these sexual orientations. In Christianity they believed that having a “wet dream” was caused by having sex with the mythical creatures’ incubi and succubi. The person having the
.....read more What are the theoretical perspectives on sexuality? - Chapter 2According to Freud, nothing is more important than the choice for a reproductive mate. He views sex in terms of libido, which can be expressed with sexual behaviour. On the other hand, Bandura would argue that sexual arousal leading to an orgasm is a positive reinforcement that will lead to the couple repeating this act more often.
The evolutionary biology to understand social behaviour in animals is called socio-biology. The socio-biologist will study human sexual behaviour by examining patterns in other species. From the evolution perspective the most important function of sex is producing healthy offspring. This happens through sexual selection, in which animals that are best at adapting to their environment will survive. Humans choose their mates based on physical attractiveness, which according to the socio-biologist is a way of evaluating one’s health and vigor. This could indicate a better offspring. However, if people only chose mates based on maximum reproductive success, attractiveness should be a more important indicator of mate selection in unhealthy countries.
There are several hindrances that can occur with reproduction, two of them are infant vulnerability and maternal death. The first is reduced when the mother is providing care continuously, including breastfeeding. Also, a pair-bond between mother and father and attachment between the child and its parents limit infant vulnerability. Parental investment means that parents are more interested in the survival of their own offspring and will invest significant resources to achieve this. Darwin proposed that sexual selection creates differences between females and males. There are two processes involved:
The competition of representatives from one gender (often males) for access to mating members of another gender.
Preferential choice by representatives from one gender (often females) for certain members of another gender.
This means that species compete among themselves in the mating process. The socio-biologic perspective has been criticized. Researchers argue that the biological determinism is an old-fashioned version of evolution and sex is no longer only reproductive.
Evolutionary psychology focuses on psychological mechanisms, altered by natural selection. Behaviours that evolved as a result of sexual selection can be considered cognitive or emotional. People can have different strategies in choosing a partner for reproduction. A short-term strategy is when one chooses a partner based on immediate resources, such as food or money. A long-term strategy could be to
.....read more What kind of research in the field of sexology is there? - Chapter 3Over the last few years there have been major improvements in sex research. The methods can differ on the following:
The measurement of sexuality: this can be self-report, biological measures or observation.
The number of subjects studied, either large or small groups.
Whether studies take place in the field or in a laboratory.
Sex can be manipulated or studied in natural occurrence.
It is important to study and understand these techniques and their limitations. It gives a better understanding in current sex research, but also in the research that is yet to come.
The first thing that needs to be decided is how to measure sexuality. There are several methods available:
Self-reports are the most common way and exist of questions about people’s sexuality. They can be conducted on paper, with interviews or online.
Behavioural measures include direct observation where participants are observed, and the behaviour is described. Another behavioural measure is eye-tracking where participants’ eye movements are studied when they look at images on a computer. Illegal sexual behaviour is studies using police reports. In the FBI they use uniform crime reports to study illegal sexuality. However, it only detects cases that are reported to the police.
Implicit measures include the implicit associations test in which the strength of associations to sexual content is measured. People tend to respond faster when an association is stronger. People are asked to divide sexual images or text into categories, such as pleasant and unpleasant.
Biological measures are measures of response to sex. There are genital measures in which arousal is measured by vaginal changes in women and erection changes in men. MRI and fMRI are now increasingly being used, they look at autonomy and brain regions involved in sexual behaviour. Strengths are its normativity, but limitations are the complicated statistical research needed to read the results and there is a lot of noise if the participant does not lie completely still in the scanner. Also, the results depend on the choice of sets of stimuli.
One important consideration
.....read more What are the differences in sexual anatomy for men and women? - Chapter 4The purpose of this chapter is to provide information about the functionality of parts of the reproductive organs.
The female sexual organs are divided into external -and internal organs.
The external organs are the clitoris, the inner lips, the mons pubis, the vaginal opening and the outer lips. Together they are called the vulva. Its appearance differs from one woman to another.
The clitoris is a sensitive organ that is important in sexual response. It exists from the tip (glans), two copora cavernosa, a knob of tissue and two crura. They develop before birth and the gender organs of one gender are homologous. The clitoris of the female is homologous to the male’s penis because they exist from the same embryonic tissue. The clitoris is also erectile and fills with blood as the penis does. The clitoris is unique because it has no reproductive function.
The mons pubis is the rounded and fatty part of tissue covered in pubic hairs.
The labia is the part along both sides of the opening of the vagina and also covered with pubic hairs. The Bartholin glands lie inside the inner lips and do not have a significant function. The perineum is the area between the anus and the vagina. The introitus is the opening of the vagina itself. Urine does not pass through the clitoris itself, but through the urethra, which is a separate opening.
The hymen is a thin membrane that partly covers the opening of the vagina. It has some openings for menstrual fluid. It can be opened or stretched when the penis moves into the vagina. The hymen may be taken as a sign of virginity as it typically breaks when first having intercourse. However, a women without a hymen can still be a virgin, some girls are just born without.
The internal organs consist of the vestibular bulbs, the skene’s glands, the vagina, a pair of fallopian tubes and a pair of ovaries.
The vagina is the organ in which the penis is inserted during sex. It is also referred to as the birth canal or introitus. The cervix at the lower part of the uterus is connected to the top. The walls of the vagina have three layers. The inner part of the vagina is sensitive to erotic stimulation. Around the vagina there is the pubococcygeus muscle, which is stretched during childbirth.
The vestibular bulbs are two small organs that lie on either side of the vaginal wall.
The skene’s gland
What are sex hormones, sexual differentiation and the menstrual cycle? - Chapter 5During the prenatal period most differences between men and women arise. This complex process is named: parental sexual differentiation. In this chapter the process of the menstrual cycle and sexual differentiation is discussed.
The chemical substances that are created by the endocrine glands and secreted into the bloodstream are called hormones. The effects of hormones are felt rapidly through its secretion into the bloodstream. The hormones that are most important for sex are the following:
Testosterone, this hormone belongs to the group called androgens.
Oestrogens
Progesterone
The endocrine glands that are of interest are those for sex, these are the testes in males and the ovaries in females. The pituitary gland is related to the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus regulates the pituitary, which regulates the ovaries and the testes. Therefore, it has the nickname of master gland. The hypothalamus plays a role in vital behaviours such as drinking, easting and having sex. The pituitary, hypothalamus and gonads (which are the ovaries and testes) work together to regulate the functions needed for sex.
Both the testes and the pituitary produce hormones, the most important one in men is testosterone. It has a function in maintaining and stimulating the secondary characteristics of sex, such as beard growth. It also is responsible for maintaining genitals and their production of sperm and for stimulation of the bones and muscles. The pituitary produces two important hormones, both hormones influence the functioning of the testes.
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): controls sperm production.
Luteinizing hormone (LH): controls testosterone production.
Because of the negative feedback loop between the pituitary, the testes and the hypothalamus, the testosterone levels in males remain relatively constant. The level of the LH and FSH hormone is regulated by gonadotropin-releasing hormone or GnRH. This hormone is secreted by the hypothalamus. The feedback loop, where the hypothalamus monitors the testosterone levels and influences the level of GnRH, is called the HPG-axis. When testosterone levels are high, the hypothalamus produces GnRH to make sure the pituitary stops producing as much LH. This negative feedback loop is important for keeping the testosterone level constant. The hormone inhibin is produced by the Sertoli cells in the testes. It regulates FSH in
.....read more What are the main notes on conception, pregnancy & childbirth? - Chapter 6When a woman is ovulating, the egg is released from the follicle into the ovary and enters the fallopian tube. It starts its journey to the uterus when it is fertilized in about five days. If the egg is not fertilized it degenerates in forty-eight hours. When the sperm is inserted into the vagina it starts its way towards the egg. The sperm is a very tiny cell and exists from the head, midpiece and tail. Sperm contains both RNA and DNA carrying instructions for development of the embryo. Conception does not happen in the uterus, but in the outer part of the fallopian tube. The sperm is attracted to the egg by a chemical attractant. Sperm produces hyaluronidase, which dissolves the thin layer around the egg called zona pellucida. When an egg is fertilized it is called a zygote. In the first eight weeks the conceptus is called embryo and after that foetus.
The most important way to improve conception is to have intercourse while the woman is ovulating. The best way to determine when a woman is ovulating is to measure body temperature. On the day of the ovulation the temperature drops, and the day after it rises again. Sperm can live in the woman’s body for five days meaning intercourse could also take place a few days before the ovulation. Also, regular intercourse (every day or every two days) is important for the male’s sperm count. The position of intercourse is important for an optimal flow of sperm into the vagina. Finally, lubricants should not be used as they might kill or block the sperm.
The “silent struggle” between conceptus and pregnant woman is about the competition for nutrients. The placenta determines the flow
.....read more What do the elements of conception and abortion entail? - Chapter 7Contraception is not as controversial as it used to be. Nowadays effective anticonception methods are available for a variety of reasons. For example, people who are not in a relationship typically want to prevent pregnancy. The fact that anticonception is becoming more ordinary has a positive impact on the number of teen pregnancies, especially in the United States. Another good reason is the reduction of healthcare costs by avoiding unnecessary abortions.
Hormonal methods are very effective. The methods include the pill, the patch, the vaginal ring and injections.
The combination birth control pill contains progestin, oestrogen and a synthetic progesterone in slightly higher levels than normal. The pill needs to be taken for twenty-one days with a placebo or no-pill seven days in between. There are variations on this number of placebos versus active pills. The pill prevents ovulation by heightening levels of oestrogen and progesterone, and thus inhibiting FSH and LH production. Progestin makes the tissue very thick so implantation if the eggs were fertilized is almost impossible. In the placebo days, when progestin and oestrogen are not taken, a withdrawal bleeding takes place.
The failure rate or pregnancy rate is the number of women who become pregnant during a year of contraception. There is the failure rate for perfect users and the failure rate for typical users. The failure rate for perfect users is about 0.3% and 9% for typical users. One side effect of the pill is disease in the circular system. Women on the pill have a higher risk on the development of blood clots and high blood pressure. Other side effects are nausea, weight gain, the increasement of vaginal discharge and heightened change of getting chlamydia.
Advantages of the pill are its effectiveness and it does not intervene with sex. It also reduces cramps and lowers the amount of menstrual flow. Besides the side effects, the correct intake of the pill can be a burden on women with a busy lifestyle. Also, when people do not engage in sex often, the pill can be a contraceptive overkill. Getting pregnant can take about three months after stopping the pill, but the rates are the same as women who never took the pill. Combinations with other drugs can decrease the effectiveness.
What is meant by sexual arousal? - Chapter 8Sexual expression contributes to an overall good mental health. Understanding sexual arousal is also important in understanding sexual dysfunctions.
Sexual response commonly happens in three stages: excitement, orgasm and resolution. The physiological mechanisms are myotonia and vasocongestion. Vasocongestion takes place when a major deal of blood flows in regional blood vessels, such as the genitals. It is a result of dilation of these blood vessels. Myotonia is the contraction of the muscles throughout the body, so not only in the genitals.
The excitement phase is the start of sexual arousal. Vasocongestion causes the erection in males, it happens when the corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum fill with blood. Factors such as alcohol, fatigue and age can slow down this process. Several neurotransmitters are involved in this process, for instance, Viagra works on the nitric oxide neurotransmitter. To reverse the erection, the neurotransmitters epinephrine and norepinephrine are involved. In women, a critical sexual response is lubrication of the vagina. This is also a result of vasocongestion. The blood flow through the walls of the vagina causes the capillaries to dilate. Fluid can then seep trough the membranes of the vaginal walls. It does not happen as fast after presentation of arousing sexual stimulation as it does with men. Female response to these stimuli is also affected by age, alcohol intake and fatigue.
When the woman gets closer to an orgasm, the orgasmic platform forms. This is the narrowing of the muscle around the entrance of the vagina. When a woman is excited, the tip of the clitoris is swollen and is harder than normally. Relaxation of the muscle that surrounds the arteries allows for a great blood flow to the genitals. Nitric oxide is also the main neurotransmitter involved. One effect from myotonia is that the nipples erect, this is both present for males and females. During arousal the inner lips of the vaginal walls swell and open. The opening of the vagina is also called the ballooning response. This helps the entrance of the penis. Later in the phase of excitement, the two processes of myotonia and vasocongestion built up to the orgasm.
The orgasm in males exists from contractions of the pelvic organs. In the preliminary stage of the orgasm the prostate, seminal vesicles contract and the vas
.....read more How does sexuality change in the childhood and adolescence? - Chapter 9Lifespan development refers to the study on sexuality across the lifespan.
The Kinsey reports and the NHSLS (Laumann et al., 1994) are the main sources of studying sex. Surveys are often being used, but they are subject to errors with recall and memory. Another option is studying sexual behaviour and arousal. Especially research of sexuality in children is very problematic in this sense and brings ethical concerns.
Freud was one of the first to acknowledge sexuality in children. The capacity to show sexual responses are present from birth. Reflex erections even happen before birth in the uterus. The first intimate relation that is experiences is with a parent, especially with the mother. This relationship involves a lot of physical contact can produces a sensuous response. There are several concepts that are important in studying infant and preschool sexuality.
Attachment refers to the bond between infant and mother, father or caregiver. The bond starts to form right after birth and continues until the end of infancy. Attachment is the first encounter with emotional intimacy and love. The capacity of romantic attachment is based on the attachment style that an infant had with its parents.
Self-stimulation occurs in infants, around the age of sex to twelve children start to touch their own genitals. This behaviour is quite normal and even orgasms are possible.
Child-child encounters occur from the age of four to five, when children become more social. Children may hug each other or hold hands. Some children learn about heterosexual behaviour by seeing their parents have sex, or witnessing the primal scene. According to Freud this could inhibit one’s sexual development.
Sexual knowledge and interests start in the preschool years. Children become interested in different forms of urinating and children enjoy hugging and kissing their parents. They also learn about marriage.
Knowledge about gender starts around the age of two or three. Children start to develop a gender identity. Some children start to exhibit cross-gender behaviour. Others might experience gender dysphoria.
How does sexuality change in the adulthood? - Chapter 10In the United States, the decline of marriage and the rise of new families caused a big change in sexuality in adulthood. This is true for sexual orientation, monogamy, marital sexuality and cohabitation.
The sexual development starts from childhood and by the time people are in their adulthood they are aware of their sexual orientation -and identity. The identification of our sexual preferences is a form of maturity in sexual unfolding. Learning to communicate with sexual partners is difficult for a lot of people, because of the lack of role models in our society. Other problems are responsibility about sex and the development of the capacity for intimacy. The never married group of adults are individuals that intended to marry but did not and people who intended to stay single. Many persons are involved in serial monogamy, which is the occurrence of two or more intimate relationships prior to marriage. Why unmarried people have this status can have both voluntary and involuntary reasons. A virgin is described as someone who never had intercourse, rarely dated and has not engaged in sexual intimacy. Many singles that often report unsatisfying sexual encounters have a harder time in sustaining romantic relationships. Singleism is the stereotyping and stigmatization of people that are not in a couple relationship that is socially recognised.
The singles scene is the institutionalised opportunity for singles after the age of twenty-five to meet a partner. The nightclub is such a place and many people engage in sporting rituals and game-oriented cultural scripts to participate. Apps, such as grinder and tinder can also enable people to find each other. Cell phones play a significant role in the meeting of potential (romantic) partners. Black men and women are more likely to remain single.
A living apart together relationship or LAT is a relationship between unmarried people who live in separate houses but consider themselves a couple. Cohabitation is a way for trying out a committed residential relationship. Cohabitation is becoming a popular alternative to marriage.
The decision
.....read more What do the aspects of attraction, love and communication entail? - Chapter 11The sexual standard for many people is that there should be a close connection between two people before engaging in sex. Therefore, the social -and emotional component of love should be discussed.
There has been extensive research on attraction and there are many forms of interpersonal attraction that will be discussed.
What are the differences in gender concerning sexuality? - Chapter 12Gender is one of the most basic status characteristics. People feel uncomfortable with uncertainty about another person’s gender. This is rooted in the gender binary, the classification of people into either the category male of female.
The emphasis on gender in societies is codified with gender roles, this is a set of norms or culturally defined expectations to define how people of one gender should behave. A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people that differs those people from others. Heterosexuality is an important part of gender roles and stereotypes.
Gender roles are a product of culture. Intersectionality is the approach where the meaning and consequences of the use of multiple categories for difference, identity and disadvantage. Effects of gender should not be considered in isolation, but the category woman should be accompanied by the categories that also apply in this woman, such as ethnicity, social class, religion and sexual orientation. People then may be part of both a privileged and disadvantaged group.
Which aspects does sexual orientation entail? - Chapter 13Sexual orientation depends on the person someone is sexually attracted to with a potential for loving. A homosexual is sexually attracted to people from the same gender. A heterosexual has a sexual orientation towards the other gender and bisexual is sexually oriented towards both genders. The term homosexual comes from the word homo, which means same. The term lesbian also comes from the ancient Greeks and is used to refer to female homosexuals. Gay activists prefer gay over homosexual because there are many bad connotations to homosexuality. A heterosexual is called straight. The definition of queer is a term that embraces gay, lesbian and transgender people. The abbreviation LGB can also be used to describe lesbian, gay -and transgender, another term is sexual minority.
People’s attitudes on one another are influenced by sexual orientation. Especially heteronormativity, which is the belief that heterosexuality is the norm, influences stereotyping about sexual minority groups. Negative stereotypes and attitudes lead to discrimination and crime against gays and lesbians. In America, many people disapprove homosexuality and some experts even believe their attitudes can be described as homophobia. This is the irrational fear in combination with fixed negative attitudes towards homosexuals. When these feelings are not strong enough to be named phobia, these negative attitudes are called anti-gay prejudice. These people also express heterosexism, the belief that everyone is heterosexual. The most severe expression of heterosexism are hate crimes against LGBs. These incidents have a high psychological toll on the people belonging to sexual minorities that are being harassed. The media plays a role in the anti-gay attitudes. Currently there are more representations of sexual minorities and they are more visible in the media, however they are often still stereotyped, whether this is a positive or a negative one.
Gays and lesbians belong to a minority group and suffer from discrimination. In America, an experiment was conducted to research job discrimination for gay men. They found that job interviews for gays were shorter and rated more negatively. Homosexuals have the advantage of being able to hide that they are part of a minority and get along with heterosexuals. This is also a disadvantage because lying about
.....read more Which variations in sexual behavior are there? - Chapter 14Scientists have the tendency to describe behaviour in terms of normal or abnormal. Abnormal sexual behaviour is described with the following terms: sexual deviance, sexual variance, paraphilias and perversion.
One approach in describing abnormal behaviour is the statistical definition, it classifies rare and uncommon sexual behaviour as abnormal. In the sociological approach the dependence on culture is acknowledged. Abnormal sexual behaviour is described as deviant in the society. The psychological approach (Buss, 1966) describes abnormal sexual behaviour as inefficient, bizarre and discomforting. The medical approach is classified by the DSM. It recognises eight forms of abnormalities: sexual masochism, frotteurism, sexual sadism, fetishism, voyeurism, transvestism, pedophilia and exhibitionism.
The definition of paraphilia is the intense sexual interest in sexual stimulation other than with normal human partners. Paraphilia is not necessarily a mental disorder but might require intervention. When the person feels great distress either caused by societal pressure or unwilling sexual partners the paraphilia can be classified a disorder. The general diagnostic criteria described in the DSM are:
It can be difficult to distinguish normal from abnormal sexual behaviour. Many people hold mild fetishes, such as the fetish for exciting lingerie. Also, forty-two percent of people reported they engaged in voyeurism and thirty-five percent engaged in frottage, this is sexual rubbing against a woman while in a crowd (Templeman & Stinnett, 1991). The fetish becomes abnormal when it gets more extreme or when it becomes a necessity.
Fetishism means having a sexual fixation on an object other than a human. Also, a great erotic significance is attached to this object. A fetishistic disorder is when urges, behaviour or fantasies for a non-living object enhances or produces sexual desire without or with the partner. It should last for at least six months and cause significant distress. In some cases, people are unable to get an orgasm unless the object is present. There are two types of fetishes: media
.....read more What is meant by sexual coercing? - Chapter 15In this chapter sexual coercing is discussed. Rape, child sexual abuse and sexual harassment are studied.
The definition of rape is the non-consensual vaginal, oral or anal penetration obtained by force. The most important point is that the victim did not consent to it. The impact is high, psychological distress such as depression, suicide ideation and attempt, anxiety and posttraumatic stress are often reported after rape. The long-term psychological distress suffered by someone who experiences an uncontrollable and terrifying event is called posttraumatic stress disorder. Symptoms are depression, nightmares, lack of feeling safe and depression. People with PTSD form a schema with information about the traumatic event and their responses. This schema is involved in triggering cues and feelings of terror after the event took place. There are several factors that are associated with the severity of psychological outcomes:
Self-blame is experienced sometimes by women after they were being raped. This is linked to worsen the psychological outcomes. Besides psychological, there are also physiological effects of rape. People can experience bleedings, get pregnant or get a sexually transmitted disease. Posttraumatic growth is the positive life change after trauma.
Most rape is conducted by people in the inner circle of the victim. Date rape is the most common, especially on college campuses. It can be the result of miscommunication where a man misperceives the intentions of a woman. A big problem today is the existence of Rohypnol, a date-rape drug that causes drowsiness or sleep. Marital rape or intimate partner rape is also quite common, and the consequences are no less severe. Motives include power, domination, sadism, anger and sexual desire.
There are several views of the theoretical causes of rape:
What are the aspects related to sex for sale? - Chapter 16In many societies the exchange of money and sex is a prominent feature. A lot of money is made in the porn industry and prostitution. These subjects involve controversial -and legal issues, but also attract a lot of customers.
People that engage in partnered sex and are rewarded with material gifts, money or other payment are considered commercial sex workers or prostitutes. The venue where this sex word takes place depends on the client and type of sex worker.
What sexual disorders are there? - Chapter 17Sexual disorders cause a big deal of psychological distress. A sexual disorder is described as a problem with responses in sexuality that cause mental distress. Another term is sexual dysfunction. Defining a sexual disorder is not straightforward because the disorders are spread over a continuum. There is a distinction between a lifelong sexual disorder that was present from the moment sexual development began and an acquired sexual disorder, which developed after some time of normal sexual functioning.
There are two types of disorders concerning sexual desire: hypoactive -and discrepancy of sexual desire.
In the DSM the distinction between male hypoactive sexual desire disorder and female sexual interest/arousal disorder is now made to split the disorder. There might be a third category needed to represent other genders.
There are two types of disorders with sexual arousal, they include the female sexual arousal disorder and the male erectile disorder.
What kind of sexually transmitted infections are there? - Chapter 18It is important to know, how to prevent and treat sexually transmitted diseases (STD) or sexually transmitted infections (STI). Sexually transmitted infections are more common among youth, age fifteen to twenty-four and the infections human papillomavirus (HPV), trichomoniasis and chlamydia are the most common. Prevention efforts are not working as well as they should as this age group accounts for half of the STIs in the United States.
An example of a STI caused by a bacterium is Chlamydia, the chlamydia trachomatis is a bacterium that can be transmitted trough sexual contact. It can infect the genital organs of both men and women. Adolescent girls have a particularly high infection rate of chlamydia compared to Gonorrhea. This is important, because the symptoms can be similar, but the treatment for Gonorrhea does not work for Chlamydia. The symptoms are discomforting urination and it can be detected using a urine sample (or sample of cells in the vagina). The problem with Chlamydia is that about seventy-five percent of the women, and fifty percent of men do not have any symptoms, they are asymptomatic. Therefore, many people go untreated. This can cause urethral damage, infection of the epididymis and proctitis (in men that performed anal intercourse). The most extreme complication is pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and infertility. Also, a baby born from a mother with Chlamydia can develop eye infections or pneumonia. Chlamydia can be treated with azithromycin or doxycycline. There is no vaccine available for Chlamydia yet, but it is being developed. The best prevention method is the consistent use of a condom.
Human papillomavirus or HPV is a virus that increases the risk of specific cancers, such as cervical cancer. It also causes genital warts, there are warts appearing around the urethral opening, the scrotum or the shaft of the penis. For women the warts appear on the walls of the vagina or the cervix. Most people with HPV are asymptomatic. Not all infections with HPV cause cancer but it is the most important risk factor for developing cervical cancer. Oral sex can transmit HPV and people who get HPV trough oral sex have a higher risk for mouth and throat cancer. However, in most cases HPV infections go away within two
.....read more What are the aspects of ethics and religion related to sexuality? - Chapter 19The reasons for evaluating ethics in sexuality is for two reasons: the first is ethical and religious considerations must be taken into account when scientists describe sexuality. The second is the personal importance of ethics and the influence of ethics on personal decision making.
Fundamentally, ethics refers to right or wrong. It also refers to a set of principles put together by a specific group of people. When there are two things that are desired, ethics are used to choose among them. Sexual decisions are integrated in our pattern of decision making. Religion provides an ethical code and provides rules, rewards and sanctions. It helps create culture and thus is an important influence on individuals and shapes a society’s orientation towards sexuality. There are some basic terms that are important in the discussion about ethics:
Old religious and ethical systems are called old morality and the situationist approach is part of new morality.
Ethical traditions deal with norms on sexual behaviour, here are some examples of (mostly) Western sexual ethics in the past.
Which laws concerning sex are there? - Chapter 20Many sexual behaviours, such as adultery or sex with someone younger than eighteen are crimes in the United States. There are several laws that tell people about their sexual behaviour.
Laws about sex are ancient and has its roots in the Hebrew Bible. These rules were used to regulate the religious morals. Even though sex has become a much more private subject, most societies have laws for sexual behaviour. These rules should free people from sexual assault and coercion and that children should not be sexually exploited. Fornication is illegal because this often results in extramarital births. It is compelling that the Judeo-Christian religion still determines some sexual laws since constitution forbids imposing others with religious beliefs. However, these sexual laws resemble rather moral than religious belief. The Victorian compromise refers to the conflict in attitudes about sexuality and results in the law not criminalizing the behaviour per se, but the conduct that is visible to the outside world. The study of sex and the law reflects inequality, sexuality, sexual identities and individuality of a society.
The categorization of sexual laws is difficult because no-one knows how many there are. Civil law, in addition to criminal law might penalize certain sexual behaviours with regards to government employees and immigration regulations. Also, the laws (on sex) are constantly changing, therefore the authors attempt to give a broad overview of the different kinds of sex laws.
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