Article summaries
Articlesummary with Comparison of sadness, anger, and fear facial expressions when toddlers look at their mothers by Buss & Kiel - 2004
In the past, researchers suggested that the facial expression of sadness in toddlers may be more effective for receiving care than the expression of other emotions. This study aims to show that this is indeed the case and fills in a gap, as there has not been many research about the facial expression of toddlers.
What was the reason to conduct this study?
Emotion regulation is something that is developed as children age. Toddlers still depend on their mothers in this aspect, as being comforted by them leads to the reduction of distress. They receive this comfort by expressing this distress, for example by crying or by looking at the mother. Therefore, the expression of negative emotions serves as a tool to receive care. Mothers react in a certain way to different emotions. For example, the expression of anger is often ignored, while sadness leads to comforting, warmth and play. In this way, the modulation of facial expressions is reinforced.
How was the research conducted?
In this study, researchers investigated whether toddlers of 24 months modulate their facial expressions when interacting with their mothers after a frustrating or threatening situation. The research was conducted according to the following questions:
- What was the predominant distress expression in each episode?
- Did toddlers express sadness more than the target emotion when looking at their mother?
- Did the expression of sadness increase in frequency and intensity during looks at their mother?
- Did the expression of sadness occur more when toddlers looked at their mother than when they were not looking at their mother?
The research was conducted with 71 toddlers, mainly Caucasian and from middle-class families. They were placed in a room with an invisible camera. The episodes of threat were created by a stranger approaching the child, kneeling close by and staring at the kid in silence. The episodes of frustration were created by removing a toy from the child, and by placing a toy in a locked, transparent box near the child. Subsequently, the intensity and frequency of facial expressions of different emotions were measured.
What are the results of the study?
The results of this study show that in the episodes with the stranger, fear facial expressions were expressed twice as often as expressions of sadness. In the episodes where the toy was removed, facial expressions of anger were expressed almost three times as often as expressions of sadness. In the episodes with the toy locked in a box, sadness was expressed more frequently than anger. The researchers demonstrated that the toddlers were more likely to express sadness than anger or fear during looks at their mother, and that the expressions of sadness were more intense than the expressions of anger or fear.
What are the limitations of the study?
The study focused solely on toddlers, therefore no conclusions can be drawn about the development of the
.....read more Articlesummary with Awareness of Single and Multiple Emotions in High-functioningChildren with Autism by Rieffe a.o. - 2007
Why does this study focus on the awareness of personal emotions of children with autism?
Many research has shown that children from the autistic spectrum experience more difficulties in understanding the emotions of others. They have a dysfunctional Theory of mind, which makes it more difficult for them to read others. However, there is not much information about how aware of their own emotions children from the autistic spectrum are. A dysfunctional theory of mind might lead to difficulties on this aspect as well. This research aims to fill this gap.
How do children with autism perceive emotions?
Different than often thought, children with autism do not experience less emotions than normal children. However, experiencing emotions does not imply they are also aware of these emotions. Children with autism are more likely to exhibit emotions to non-living objects. This may lead them to communicate less about their emotions.
As children grow older, they learn to monitor their emotions by describing and naming them. Emotions are then regarded as internal processes that relate us to the outside world. However, without a functional theory of mind, children with autism might not develop this understanding. A theory of mind allows people to make a personal representation of the outside world. This personal representation makes us understand that we are afraid of the dog. Without this representation, it is the dog that is scary. This seems like a subtle difference, but has major implications for the regulation of emotions.
Which method was used to investigate the way children with autism describe emotion evoking situations?
The goal of this study was to examine the ability of high functioning children with autism to describe emotion evoking situations they have experienced. The expectation was that there would be no difference between children with autism and normal children regarding their ability to describe situations in which the basic four emotions were experienced. For this study, 22 children with autism and 22 normal developing children participated. These children had to answer questions about their feelings, using a 5-point scale. Second, the researchers described an imaginary situation to the children and asked them to describe how they would feel in the situation. The children could describe the emotion either verbally, or by pointing at a drawing representing the emotion. Finally, the children were asked to indicate the intensity of the emotions they experienced.
How do children with autism describe emotion evoking situations?
The results show several differences between children with autism and normal children in expressing emotions. The children with autism reported negative emotions less frequently. They also made less references to specific situations when they talked about the four emotions. For all children it was more difficult to acknowledge intense negative emotions. When the researchers asked the children to react to the story, the children with autism identified fewer different emotional perspectives. In general, these results match the expectations of the researchers. However, the children with autism were able to detect less emotional perspectives in the stories that
.....read more Articlesummary with Children's emotional development: Challenges in their relationships to parents, peers, and friends by Von Salisch - 2001
Why is emotional development in children researched?
Between the age of five and twelve, children undergo big developments on the emotional level. These developments have been marked as solitary and intrapsychic processes by researchers in the past. However, interpersonal aspects can not be ignored when investigating emotional development. This study aims to combine theoretical formulations and empirical findings in order to understand emotional development and challenges in the three most important interpersonal relations during preschool and primary school, the relation with parents, peers and friends. The study specifically investigates the role of these relations on the development of appraisal, experience, expression and emotion regulation. Each of the three important interpersonal relations will be discussed, as well as the structural characteristics of these relationships and their influence on emotional development.
What are the challenges in the relationship between children and their parents?
The relationship between children and their parents has a large impact on emotional development. Children and their parents are close to each other and spend a lot of time together. It is an asymmetrical relationship, as parents have more power than the child. Parents provide support and have a teaching role. The way the parents react to the child's distress determines their development of emotion regulation. A lack of response from the parents can have negative effects on emotion regulation. Furthermore, talking about other people's emotions has a positive effect on emotion understanding and moral sensitivity. When parents talk about feelings, children tend to have better regulation in the area of attention, appraisal and are better at expressing their emotions. An example of a structural limitation in this relationship is the difference in age. Some emotions of the child are not experienced by the parents, like being scared of monsters, and may therefore be disregarded
What are the challenges in peer relations?
The relationship between children and their peers is marked by symmetry, there are no power differences. The relationships are far less close than the one with parents for example, but still have a big impact on emotional development because they have the same age and understand each other better. They share similar emotions that are therefore validated and intensified when they are in a group. However, peer groups also have norms about the expression of emotions. Research has shown that children would only express anxiety or hurt in cases where it was very intense or visible from the outside. Showing negative emotions is generally not accepted in peer groups, and staying calm is the norm. The norms are reinforced by teasing, which often increases as the victim shows he is upset, gossiping about mistakes or blunders of other children, rejection, favouritism and outgroup hostality. A challenge that results from peer relations is overcoming the hurt of not being accepted by the group or chosen as favorite by others. Researchs shows that children tend to ignore emotions like sadness and anger in order to fit in.
What
.....read more Article summary with The complexity of failure: Implications of complexity theory for safety investigations by Dekker a.o. - 2011 - Chapter
Often when an accident occurs, people tend to point out a single actor that is to blame, even though we live in a complex society and the actual cause is complicated and multifaceted. This research aims to provide a critical note on the traditional philosophical-historical linear take on failure in complex systems. In order to give a more accurate overview of the events leading to an accident, the researchers use the Newtonian analysis of failure, which takes the relationship between cause and effect in account, as well as foreseeability of harm, time-reversibility and the ability to come up with true story about the accident.
What does the Cartesian-Newtonian worldview imply for system safety?
According to the Newtonian science, whether the whole functions or not can be explained by the functioning of the components. According to this way of thinking, the malfunctioning of components is analyzed in order to understand a complex system failure. A complex world is simplified by breaking it down into simple pieces. For example, a human error can be broken down into memory failure, attention failure and perceptual failure. In this theory, there must always be a cause and an effect. When the consequences are big, the actions leading to the cause are blamed more.
This theory is based on the idea that everything can be broken down into matter and movement. Solving an accident becomes a matter of finding the element that is to blame. Foreseeability of harm means that accidents can be predicted when all the details about the state of the parts and their movements are known. Time-reversibility means that any event can be reconstructed, since cause and effect are determined in both the future and the past.
What does complexity worldview imply for system failure?
The limitation of the Newtonian science is that the processes and the combinations of factors that lead to an accident are not taken into account. The combination of factors, different elements being exposed to different influences simultaneously, is called complexity. Complex systems are defined by the interaction of different components. According to this worldview, accidents cannot be explained by breaking down a system into components because of the importance of interactions between them.
One of the characteristics of a complex system is that it has a history that explains the behaviour of the system. This history is large and complicated, and cannot always be reconstructed. This worldview is marked by assymetry and nonlinearity. There is no broken part that can be discovered and explain a big accident. An example of a complex system failure is the high pressure on low-budget airlines. Problems with an airplane were marked as maintenance issues, which later led to a plain crash. The problem is not a malfunctioning part, but rather a structural issue of funds falling short. This worldview implies that events cannot be reconstructed and are
.....read more Artikelsamenvatting bij Het maatschappelijk rendement van voorschoolse voorzieningen van Van Huizen & Plantenga - 2017
De voorschoolse opvang heeft een positief effect op de ontwikkeling van kinderen, daarom is het lonend te investeren in universele, kwalitatieve opvang.
Hoe ziet het huidige systeem van voorschoolse opvang eruit?
Momenteel is het systeem van voorschoolse opvang verdeeld. Kinderen van ouders die beide een inkomen hebben, gaan bijvoorbeeld naar het kinderdagverblijf, terwijl kinderen van ouders met een lager inkomen naar de peuterspeelzaal gaan. Daarnaast bestaat er een speciaal programma voor kinderen met een leerachterstand, namelijk de programma’s voor voor- en vroegschoolse educatie (vve). De SER pleit voor de invoering van universele voorschoolse opvang voor 16 uur per week, veel politieke partijen staan hier achter. Dit artikel focust zich op de positieve maatschappelijke effecten van een dergelijk initiatief.
Gelden internationale resultaten die de positieve impact van universele opvang laten zien ook voor Nederland?
Onderzoek op internationaal niveau laat zien dat voorschools onderwijs leidt tot betere prestaties op school en op de arbeidsmarkt en zorgt voor een afname van criminaliteit. In Nederland is nog weinig onderzoek gedaan naar het onderwerp.
Volgens een onderzoek uit 2015, gebaseerd op een meta-analyse van 21 studies, zou vve geen rendement opleveren. Volgens de onderzoekers is er echter wel sprake van rendement. De meta-analyse zegt volgens hen namelijk weinig over causale verbanden. Dat is te wijten aan de manier waarop het onderzoek is uitgevoerd. Ten eerste vergeleken onderzoekers in 2015 de effectiviteit van het model met kleutergroepen en kinderdagverblijven. De uitslag zegt dus niks over het rendement van het model, maar maakt slechts een vergelijking. Ten tweede wordt de effectiviteit van de twee opvangvormen gemeten aan de hand van de vaardigheden van de kinderen. Daarbij wordt geen rekening gehouden met individuele verschillen. Er is bovendien sprake van een selectieprobleem. Dat wil zeggen dat kinderen in de vve speciaal geselecteerd zijn op hun leerachterstand.
Uit onderzoeken op basis van natuurlijke experimenten is gebleken dat vooral kinderen van laagopgeleide ouders baat hebben bij universele voorschoolse opvangprogramma's. Die positieve effecten gelden meestal alleen voor opvang van hoge kwaliteit. Het is onduidelijk of die positieve effecten ook een rendement voor de maatschappij opleveren. Volgens een Spaans onderzoek naar het rendement van universele voorschoolse opvang levert elke geïnvesteerde euro vier euro winst op. Die winst komt vooral door de ontwikkeling van de kinderen in een dergelijk programma, en niet door de verhoogde arbeidsparticipatie van moeders.
Wat zijn de voorwaarden voor rendement uit universele voorschoolse opvang?
Op basis van dit onderzoek kan geconcludeerd worden dat het belangrijk is dat ouders uit een lager sociaal-economisch milieu hun kinderen naar de voorschoolse opvang brengen. In het huidige systeem hebben deze ouders vaak geen recht op toeslag voor de opvang omdat ze niet werken. Daarnaast is het belangrijk dat wordt geïnvesteerd in de kwaliteit van de opvang.
Article summary with Gifted students by Worrell a.o. - 2019 - Chapter
This study explains the concept of gifted students and the problems regarding their education in the United States. The definition of a gifted student is a student that excels particularly in a specific area in comparison to their peers. It has been recognized that these students need special education in order for them to use their potential. However, there are many contradictions and challenges surrounding their educational needs. The first problem is the lack of state funding. Furthermore, there are different models that determine whether or not a child is gifted. There is no consensus about the model that should be used to determine this. First, the different models of giftedness will be discussed. Then, the ways gifted students are identified will be explained, followed by an overview of existing programs for them. Then, several unresolved issues will be listed. Finally, a conclusion will be drawn about the current state of education for gifted students.
What models of giftedness are there?
The most commonly used models are Renzulli’s enrichment triad in the US, Stanley's talent search model outside the US, Gagne's differentiating model of giftedness and talent (DMGT) in Canada and Australia and the the actiotope model, as developed by Ziegler, in Europe and Asia. Sometimes, giftedness is measured according to IQ. However, there are many more factors that determine giftedness. For example:
- Sternberg defined three elements in his study, namely analytical, creative and practical intelligence.
- Gardner stated that there are different types of intelligence, like linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal and intrapersonal, naturalist, spiritual and existentialist intelligence.
- The talent search model is based on mathematical and verbal ability, which are detected by above-average grades in these two fields.
- Renzulli argued that giftedness consisted of task commitment, creativity and above-average ability.
- Gagné focusses on the way giftedness in childhood is translated into adulthood.
- The pyramid model explains giftedness by displaying characteristics in a hierarchic way.
- The Actiotope model defines giftedness as a dynamic interaction between person and environment. According to this model, there should be a balance between ambition, effort and energy expanded in order to be successful.
How are gifted students identified?
The "State of the States in Gifted Education" report offers insights into how states define and identify gifted students. According to this report, many states consider high IQ, general academic achievement, talent in the arts, creativity, and specific academic abilities as factors to determine giftedness. Students from low-income families, students whose first language is not English, students from diverse cultural backgrounds and students from rural areas are rarely mentioned specifically. Most states require initial identification through teacher or parent referrals. Local school districts typically use multiple criteria, including IQ scores, achievement data, teacher nominations, state assessments, and student portfolios. Gifted education practices vary greatly depending on the state's funding and legislation.
Which programs currently exist for gifted students?
Current programs for gifted students can be divided in two categories: acceleration and enrichment. Acceleration means that students move through the curriculum at a faster
.....read more Articlesummary with Double empathy: Why autistic people are often misunderstood by Crompton a.o. - 2021
People with autism communicate in a different way than non-autistic people. It is often assumed that non-autistic people are better at understanding others in general. However, it might be the case that autistic people understand each other better. In this study, it is examined in which way autistic people communicate with non-autistic people, using the double empathy problem theory.
What is the double empathy problem?
The double empathy problem explains the difficulties that occur when autistic people and non-autistic people communicate. Empathy is the ability to understand the feelings of others. People with autism express themselves differently, which makes it difficult to understand what they mean sometimes. This works both ways, for autistic people it is also more difficult to understand non-autistic people.
An example of a problem that occurs in communication is that non-autistic people interpret non-verbal communication, and autistic people might have difficulties understanding this kind of communication. Non-autistic people might also have trouble understanding autistic people, as they try to read between the lines while there is no other meaning than what is verbally communicated.
What does the telephone game say about the double empathy problems?
Research has shown that non-autistic people tend to like autistic people less as a result of communication difficulties. This leads to the social exclusion of autistic people. On the contrary, autistic people tend to have better communication among each other. Studies show that autistic people communicate as well with each other as non-autistic people communicate. Furthermore, studies show that autistic people rely less on social expectations. Therefore, they are more patient with people who express themselves in a different way. This is supported by a study that uses a game in which one person whispers a message into the ear of the next person. The final person in line has to say the message out loud, and the aim is that it is as close as possible to the original word. Groups with autistic people were as effective in transferring the message as groups with non-autistic people. Mixed groups were much less effective.
What are the limitations of the study?
Studies about the double empathy problem have been mainly focussing on teens and adults. There has been little research about how this theory works for autistic children. Some studies show that children are more positive about autistic children. This indicates that negative attitudes about people with autism are learned. Furthermore, studies have focussed on autistic people with no intellectual disability. Therefore, the results can only be applied to this group of people.
By understanding more about autistic people and their communication can help with their inclusion.
Articlesummary with No evidence for a core deficit in developmental dyscalculia or mathematical learning disabilities by Mammarella a.o. - 2021
Until now, research about developmental dyscalculia and mathematical disabilities (MLD) have been based on two hypotheses:
The core deficit hypothesis of domain-specific numerical acuity, magnitude representation or number sense, which suggests that a specific impairment in numerical processing is the underlying cause of dyscalculia.
The domain general hypothesis, which proposes that cognitive deficits in areas like attention, memory, and executive functions contribute to mathematical difficulties.
However, there is no general consensus on the definition of MLD and the criteria for diagnosis. This study contributes to the discussion by comparing standardized differences between observed MLD cases and a control group, using a simulation. In this way, the researchers aim to answer the question whether there is a core deficit in MLD. First, the challenges in diagnosing and defining MLD are explained. Finally, the results from the study will be discussed.
How is MLD defined?
The DSM-5 defines MLD as a specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics. They adopted a dimensional approach, but still allow for the identification of the specific learning domains affected in MLD. According to the criteria set forth in the DSM-5, individuals can be diagnosed with a specific learning disorder, such as MLD, if they exhibit symptoms of the corresponding impairments for a minimum of six months, even after targeted interventions have been employed to address their difficulties. Specific learning disorders typically manifest in children with average intellectual abilities and result in lifelong challenges in activities that depend on certain learning skills.
How did the researchers test the hypothesis?
The children in the study were assessed at their school in three separate sessions that took place from January to May. The testing involved both group sessions and individual sessions. Group sessions were used for the fluid intelligence task and certain Math achievement subtests, and the order of test administration varied across classes. In the math achievement subtests, the mathematical abilities were tested with different subtests. The fluid intelligence test measured non-verbal reasoning. Following the group session, two individual sessions were conducted, each lasting about 50 minutes. These individual sessions included tasks related to reading, math tasks, and computerized tasks. Both paper-and-pencil and computerized tasks were evenly distributed and counterbalanced across the two individual sessions.
Can we identify core deficits in children with MLD?
The results of these tests supported the domain general hypothesis. The researchers did not find any core deficits, but rather a reflection of the global characteristics of the sampled population. This implies that children with MLD may have deficits in basic number processing or domain general skills, but these deficits are not present in all cases and therefore do not form core deficits.
A limitation of the study is the large sample population and the usage of widely accepted criteria. Testing with children with a clinical diagnosis, using clinical diagnosis criteria, may lead to a more certain conclusion about the presence of core deficits. In further research, it is recommended to use a dimensional approach to study
.....read more Article summary with How morality judgments influence humor perceptions of prankvertising by Chang - 2021
Prankvertising is a relatively new and little investigated form of marketing that uses humor. This study aims to provide a theoretical framework based on morality that helps to identify when this kind of marketing leads to positive brand attitudes. Prankvertising is defined as the use of videos in which customers are being pranked, that spread on social media in order to convey the brand’s image or positioning. In order to determine which aspects lead to positive attitudes, first the benign violation theory will be explained. Then, the researchers discuss how people perceive different cues for morality judgements from prank videos. Finally, the theory is tested in a pilot study.
What is the Benign Violation Theory?
The Benign Violation Theory suggests that laughter and amusement arise when there are violations that are seen as both threatening and benign. These violations originate from expected norms and provoke humor when three conditions are met:
- The violations must pose physical or psychological threats
- They must occur in contexts that are perceived as safe and playful.
- An interpretative process must reconcile the contradiction between the violation and the sense of safety.
While the Benign Violation Theory provides a useful model for understanding humor, it falls short in explaining the effects of prankvertising, where pranks are edited to highlight their playful and benign nature. According to Benign Violation Theory, viewers should always recognize the safety and benignity of pranks and find them humorous. However, real-world evidence suggests that humor perception in prankvertising depends not only on the perception of benignity but also on whether the pranks are morally acceptable. In the case of prankvertising, assessing violations and their perceived benignity is not sufficient to understand humor responses.
What are cues for morality judgement?
The level of fear perceived in the victims when they are pranked is suggested to influence viewers' judgments of the pranks' morality. More significant fear in victims is likely to lead to a more negative assessment of the prank's morality, potentially reducing the humor viewers find in it.
Additionally, the meaningfulness of the pranks, their coherence with the campaign themes, and their connection to the product or brand are considered essential factors in influencing viewers' interpretation of the advertiser's motives. Creative pranks that are meaningfully connected to the brand may help viewers justify the pranks and, subsequently, lead to more positive humor perceptions.
Furthermore, the interaction of surprise, fear, and meaningfulness can affect morality judgments and humor perceptions in prankvertising, with the perceived humor in the ad influencing brand attitudes.
Viewers' perception of humor in prankvertising is influenced by their judgments of morality, the victims' level of fear, and the meaningfulness of the pranks, all of which ultimately impact their attitudes toward the advertised brand.
What did the pilot study show?
In the pilot study, 107 videos with prankvertising were analysed. Two coders identified whether the videos provoked negative or positive feelings and what the advertised brand was. This analysis showed that mainly global brands use this strategy. Furthermore,
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