Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater - a summary
Sexuality in perspective - a summary of chapter 1 of Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater
Sexology
Chapter 1
Sexuality in perspective
Sex and gender
Gender: being male, female, or some other gender such as trans.
Sexual behaviour: behaviour that produces arousal and increases the chance of orgasm.
The history of understanding sexuality: religion and science
Religion
Throughout most of recorded history, religion provided most of the information that people has about sexuality.
These religions have profound impact.
Science
The scientific study of sex began in the 19th century, although religious notions continue to influence our ideas about sexuality.
Freud gave a great contribution to the understanding of sex.
Havelock Ellis (1896)
Believed that women, like men, are sexual creatures
He believed that sexual deviations from the norm are often harmless, and he urged society to accept them.
Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1840-1902)
Was interested in ‘pathological’ sexuality.
His work was neither objective nor tolerant, but had a long-lasting effect.
He coined the concepts of sadism, masochism, and paedophilia, and the terms heterosexuality and homosexuality.
Magnus Hirschfeld (1868-1935)
Founded the first sex research institute and journal devoted to the study of sex.
Established a marriage counselling service and gave advice on contraception and sex problems.
The study of sex tends to be interdisciplinary.
The media
The mass media in America today may play the same role that religion did in previous centuries.
Media can have three types of influence
- Cultivation
The view that exposure to the mass media makes people think that what they see there represents the mainstream of what happens in our culture - Agenda setting
The idea that the media define what is important and what is not by which stories they cover - Social learning
The idea that the media provide role models whom we imitate, perhaps even without realizing it
The internet has a powerful mass media influence.
It has potential for both positive and negative effects on sexual health.
Cross-cultural perspectives on sexuality
Cultural learning accumulates over time.
Culture: traditional ideas and values passed on from generation to generation within a group and transmitted to members of the group by symbols.
Ethnocentrism tends to influence our understanding of human sexual behaviour.
Ethnocentrism: the tendency to regard one’s own ethnic group and culture as superior to others and to believe that it customs and way of life are standards by which other cultures
Theoretical perspectives on sexuality - a summary of chapter 2 of Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater
Sexology
Chapter 2
Theoretical perspectives on sexuality
Evolutionary perspectives
Sociobiology
Sociobiology: the application of evolutionary biology to understanding the social behaviour of animals, including humans.
Sociobiologists try to understand why certain patterns of sexual behaviour have evolved in humans.
The sociobiologists argues that many of the characteristics we evaluate in judging attractiveness are indicative of the health and vigour of the individual.
These in turn are probably related to the person’s reproductive potential.
Thus, perhaps our concern with physical attractiveness is a product of evolution and natural selection.
Attractiveness is an indicator of health and is more important in mate selection in societies where more people are unhealthy.
From this viewpoint, hanging out, playing sports, getting engaged and similar customs are much like the courtship rituals of other species.
This courtship is an opportunity for each member of the prospective couple to assess each other’s fitness.
An offspring’s changes of survival are greatly increased if the parents bond emotionally and if the parents have propensity for attachment.
An emotional bond may also lead to more frequent sexual interaction. The pleasurable consequences of sex in turn will reinforce the bond.
Parental investment: the behaviour and resources invested in offspring to achieve the survival and reproductive success of their genetic offspring.
Many criticisms of sociobiology have been made
- The biological determinism
- It rests on an outmoded version of the evolutionary model that modern biologists consider naive
- Sociobiologist assume that the central function of sex is reproduction, but this is not true today
Evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology: the study of psychological mechanisms that have been shaped by natural selection.
If behaviours evolved in response to selection pressures, it is plausible that cognitive or emotional structures evolved in the same way.
A man who accurately judged whether a woman was healthy and fertile would be more successful in reproducing.
According to sexual strategies, females and males face different adaptive problems in short-term, or casual, mating and in long-term reproduction.
These differences lead to different strategies.
- In short-term mating, a female may choose a partner who offers her immediate resources, such as food or money
- In long-term mating, a female may choose a partner who appears to be able and willing to provide resources for the indefinite future
- A male may choose a sexually available female for a short-term liaison, but avoid such females when looking for a long-term mate
According to the theory, females engage in intrasexual competition to access the males.
Criticisms to evolutionary psychology
- Men and women are very similar in their stated mating preferences
- Both prefer long-term strategies and few or no short-term partners
- It
Sex research - a summary of chapter 3 of Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater
Sexology
Chapter 3
Sex research
There are different types of sex research, but basically the techniques vary in terms of the following:
- How sexuality is measured
- Self-reports
- Observations of behaviour
- Using biological measures
- Whether large numbers of people are studies in surveys, or whether a smaller number of people are studies
- Whether the studies are conducted in the laboratory or in the field
- Whether sexual behaviour is studied as it occurs naturally or whether some attempt is made to manipulate it in an experiment.
Measuring sex
The first thing that researchers have to decide is how the measure the particular aspect of sexuality they want to study.
Self-reports
The most common method for measuring sexuality is self-reports, in which the participants are asked questions about their sexual behaviour.
Self-reports can be collected in a number of ways
- Paper questionnaires
- Interviews
- Online
Behavioural measures
Several alternatives are available for behavioural measures of sexuality.
- Direct observation
A behavioural measure in which the scientist directly observes the behaviour being studied - Eye-tracking
A behavioural measure in which a device measures the participant’s point of gaze over time - Police reports
- The problem with this measure is that it detects only those cases that are reported by the police
Implicit measures
Implicit Association Test (IAT)
Measures an individual’s relative strength of association between different pair of concepts with reaction times.
We react quicker to two concepts that we associate strongly.
People cannot fake reaction times.
Biological measures
Genital measures: assess arousal by using devices that measure erection in males and vaginal changes in females.
- In males, penile plethysmography is used
- In females, a vaginal photoplethysomgraph is used
MRI and fMRI are being used increasingly in sex research.
Two limitations to use of fMRI in sex research
- Participants must be lying very still to get good images
- fMRI depends on contrasting the difference between two stimuli, therefore the results depend very much on the choice of each set of stimuli
Measures of pupil dilation.
Our pupils dilate when we look at something that is interesting or arousing, or that puts a big load on our brain.
Issues in sex research
Sampling
An important step in conducting sex research is to identify the appropriate population of people studied.
Generally the scientist is unable to get data for all people in the population so a sample
Sexual anatomy - a summary of chapter 4 of Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater
Sexology
Chapter 4
Sexual anatomy
Female sexual organs
The female sexual organs can be classified into two categories
- External organs
- Internal organs
External organs
The external genitals of females consist of
- The clitoris
- The mons pubis
- The inner lips
- The outer lips
- The vaginal opening
Vulva: the collective term of the external genitals of the female.
The appearance of the vulva varies greatly from one women to another.
The clitoris
Clitoris: a highly sensitive sexual organ in the female: the glans is in front of the vaginal entrance, and the rest of the clitoris extends deeper into the body.
It consists of
- Glans
A knob of tissue situated externally in frond of the vaginal opening and the urethral opening - A shaft consisting of two corpora cavernosa
Extends perhaps an inch into the body - Two crura
Longer spongy bodies that lie deep in the body and run from the tip of the clitoris to either side of the vagina, under the major lips.
Female sexual organs and make sexual organs develop from similar tissue before birth.
The female’s clitoris is homologous to the male’s penis, both develop from the same embryonic tissue.
The clitoris has a structure similar to that of the penis in that both have corpora cavernosa.
The clitoris varies in size from one women to the next.
The clitoris is erectile.
Its internal structure contains corpora cavernosa that fill with blood, as the similar structures in the penis do.
The clitoris has a rich supply of nerve endings, making it very sensitive to stroking.
It is the only part of the sexual anatomy with no known reproductive function.
The Mons
Mons pubis: the fatty pad of tissue under the public hair.
The labia
Outer lips: rounded pads of fatty tissue lying on either side of the vaginal entrance. They are covered with public hair.
Inner lips: thin folds of skin lying on either side of the vaginal entrance.
The inner lips extend forward and come together in front, forming the clitoral hood.
The inner and outer lips are well supplied with nerve endings and thus are also important in sexual stimulation and arousal.
Bartholin glands: two tiny glands located on either side of the vaginal entrance.
Seem to have no significant function, but sometimes they become infected.
Fourchette: the place where the inner lips come together behind the vaginal opening.
Perineum: the skin between the vaginal entrance and the anus.
Introitus: the vaginal entrance.
The urinary opening lies about midway between the clitoris and the vaginal opening.
Urine passes through
Sex hormones, sexual differentiation, and the menstrual cycle - a summary of chapter 5 of Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater
Sexology
Chapter 5
Sex hormones, sexual differentiation, and the menstrual cycle
Many of the structural differences between males and females arise before birth, during the prenatal period, in a process called prenatal sexual differentiation.
Prenatal period: the time from conception to birth.
Further differences develop during puberty.
Sex hormones
Hormones: chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands into the bloodstream.
Because they go into the blood, their effects are felt rapidly and at places in the body quite distant from where they were manufactured.
The most important sex hormones are
- Testosterone
A hormone secreted by the testes in males (also present at lower levels in females)
One of a group of hormones called androgens. - Estrogens
The group of sex hormones secreted by the ovaries in females (and present at lower levels in males) - Progesterone
A sex hormone secreted by the ovaries
The pituitary gland and the hypothalamus are also important.
- The hypothalamus regulates the pituitary glands
Also plays a part in regulating many vital behaviours. - The pituitary gland regulates the other glands
In particular the testes and ovaries.
Because of this, the pituitary gland is also called master gland fo the endocrine system.- Anterior lobe
Interacts with the gonads (testes or ovaries)
- Anterior lobe
These three structures function together.
They influence important sexual functions
- Menstrual cycle
- Pregnancy
- The changes of puberty
- Sexual behaviour
Sex hormone systems in males
The pituitary and testes both produce hormones.
The important hormone produced by the testes is testosterone.
Has important functions in:
- Stimulating and maintaining the secondary sex characteristics
- Maintaining the genitals and their sperm-producing capability
- Stimulating the growth of bone and muscle
The pituitary produces several hormones, two of which are important here. These hormones affect the functioning of the testes
- Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Stimulates follicle development in females and sperm production in males - Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Regulates estrogen secretion and ovum development in females and testosterone production in males
Testosterone levels in males are relatively constant.
The hypothalamus, pituitary, and testes operate in a negative feedback loop that maintains these constant levels.
The levels of LH are regulated GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone), which is secreted by the hypothalamus.
The hypothalamus monitors the levels of testosterone present, and this way testosterone influence the output of GnRH.
This loop is sometimes called the HPG axis, for hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad axis.
The pituitary’s production of LH stimulates the testes to produce testosterone, but when testosterone levels get high, the hypothalamus reduces its production of GnRH, in turn causing the pituitary to reduce production of
.....read more Contraception and abortion - a summary of chapter 7 of Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater
Sexology
Chapter 7
Contraception and abortion
Both babies and mothers are healthier if pregnancies are spaced three to five years apart.
Hormonal methods
Hormonal methods of contraception are highly effective and come in a number of forms
- The pill
- The patch
- The vaginal ring
- Injections
The combination pill
Combination birth control pills: birth control pills that contain a combination of estrogen and pregestin (progesterone), both at higher than natural levels.
A women takes the pill for 21 days, and then no pill or a placebo for 7 days, after which she repeats the cycle.
Variations have been introduced.
How it works
The pill works mainly by preventing ovulation.
When a women starts taking the birth control pills, estrogen levels are high. This high level of estrogen inhibits FSH production, and the message to ovulate never sends out.
The high level of progesterone inhibits LH production, further preventing ovulation.
The progestin provides additional backup effects
- It keeps the cervical mucus very thick
Making it difficult for the sperm to get through - It changes the lining of the uterus in such a way that even if a fertilized egg were to arrive,implantation would be unlikely
When the estrogen and progestin are withdrawn, the lining of the uterus disintegrates, and withdrawal bleeding or menstruation occurs.
The flow is typically reduced because the progestin has inhibited development of endometrium.
Effectiveness
Failure rate: the pregnancy rate occurring using a particular method; the percentage of women who will be pregnant after a year of use of the method.
Effectiveness: 100 minus the failure rate.
Two kinds of failure rate
- Failure rate for perfect users
- Failure rate for typical users
Combination pills are one of the most effective methods of birth control.
The perfect-user failure rate is 0.3 percent.
The typical user failure rate is 9 percent.
Failures occur primarily as a result of forgetting to take a pill for 2 or more days.
If a women forgets the pill for 3 or more days, she should use a condom or abstain from sex until she has taken hormonal pills for 7 days in a row, at which point she will again be well protected.
Side effects
- Slight but significant increases in certain diseases of the circulatory system
Women who use the pill have a higher chance than non-users of developing blood clots- Clots may lead to pain, hospitalization, and (in rare cases) death
- For some women, the pill can
Sexual arousal - a summary of chapter 8 of Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater
Sexology
Chapter 8
Sexual arousal
Satisfying sexual expression contributes to good physical and mental health.
The sexual response cycle
Sexual response typically progresses in thee stages, according to the Masters and Johnson’s model
- Excitement
- Orgasm
- Resolution
Physiological processes that occur during these stages are
- Vasocongestion:
An accumulation of blood in the blood vessels of a region of the body, especially the genitals; a swelling or erection results. - Myotonia
Muscle contraction
Not only in the genitals, but also throughout the body.
Excitement
Excitement: the first stage of sexual response, during which erection in males and vaginal lubrication in females occur.
The basic physiological process that occurs during excitement is vasocongestion.
Erection may be produced by
- Direct physical stimulation of the genitals
- Stimulation of other parts of the body
- Erotic thoughts or sensory images
Erection occurs rapidly, although it may take place more slowly as a result of a number of factors
- Age
- Intake of alcohol
- Fatigue
As the man gets closer to orgasm, a few drops of fluid, secreted by the Cowper’s gland, appear at the tip of the penis.
They may contain active sperm.
In men, the skin of the scrotum thickens, the scortal sac tenses, and the scrotum is pulled up and closer to the body.
For an erection to occur, several arteries must dilate, allowing a strong flow of blood into the corpora. They dilate because the smooth muscle surrounding the arteries relaxes.
At the same time, the veins carrying blood away from the penis are compressed, restricting the outgoing blood flow.
Multiple neurotransmitters are involved in this process
- Nitric oxide (NO)
- Dopamine
Vasoconstriction makes an erection go away.
- Epinephrine
- Norepinephrine
An important response of females in the excitement phase is lubrication of the vagina.
Results from vasocongestion.
During excitement, the capillaries in the walls of the vagina dilate and blood flow through them increases.
Vagina lubrication results when fluids seep through the semipermeable membranes of the vaginal walls, producing lubrication as a result of vasocongestion in the tissues surrounding the vagina.
Lubrication begins 10 to 30 seconds after the onset of arousing stimuli.
Can be affected by
- Age
- Alcohol
- Fatigue
Orgasmic platform: a tightening of the entrance to the vagina caused by contractions of the bulbospongiosus muscle (which covers the vestibular bulbs) that occur during the excitement stage of sexual response.
During the excitement phaser, the glans of the clitoris (the tip) swells.
This results form engorgement of its corpora cavernosa.
The crura of the clitoris also
Sexuality and the life cycle: childhood and adolescence - a summary of chapter 9 of Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater
Sexology
Chapter 9
Sexuality and the life cycle: childhood and adolescence
Lifespan development: development from birth through old age.
Data sources
Scientific data available on the sexual behaviour of children and adolescents
- Kinsey report
- NHSLS
Responses on surveys may be problematic
- The data on childhood sexual behaviour may be subject to errors that result from adults being asked to recall things that happened a very long time ago
- An alternative would be to interview children about their sexual behaviour or even to observe their sexual behaviour
Few researchers have done this- Many studies of adolescent sexual behaviour have been done
The studies of child and adolescent sexual behaviour have mostly involved surveys, which have used either questionnaires or interviews.
Virtually no researchers have made systematic, direct observations of children’s sexual behaviour, although some have asked parents to report on their children’s sexual behaviour.
Infancy and the preschool years (birth to 4 years)
Sigmund Freud first expressed the notion that children – in fact, even infants – have sexual urges and engage in sexual behaviour.
The capacity of the human body to show a sexual response is present from birth.
Reflex erections occur in male fetus for several month before birth and vaginal lubrication has been found in baby girls in the 24 hours after birth.
The first intimate relationship that most children experience is with their mother and their fathers.
The mother-infant relationship involves a good deal of physical contact and engages the infant’s tactile, olfactory, visual, and auditory senses.
Attachment
Attachment: a psychological bond that forms between an infant and the mother, the father, or other caregiver.
The quality of attachment can be very important to the child’s capacity for later sexual and emotional relationships.
The bond begins in the hours immediately following birth and continues throughout the period of infancy.
It is facilitated by cuddling and other forms of physical contact.
Adults’ styles of romantic attachment are similar to the kinds of attachment they remember having with their parents in childhood.
Self-stimulation
Infants have been observed fondling their own genitals.
- Between 6
Sexuality and the life cycle: adulthood - a summary of chapter 10 of Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater
Sexology
Chapter 10
Sexuality and the life cycle: adulthood
Sex and the single person
Sexual unfolding
The process of sexual development continues into adulthood.
There is a need to solidify one’s sexual identity and orientation.
Another step toward maturity is identifying our sexual likes and dislikes and learning to communicate them to a partner.
Two more issues are important in achieving sexual maturity
- Becoming responsible about sex
- Developing a capacity for intimacy
The never married
The never married: adults who have never been married.
The typical person who marries spends several years in the never-married category.
Celibate: unmarried
Chaste: abstaining from sexual intercourse
Serial monogamy: being involved in tow or more sexually intimate relationships prior to marriage.
Common in adolescence.
The attitudes of never-married persons about their status vary widely.
Three types of involuntary celibates
- Virgins
Never had intercourse, rarely ever dated, often had not engaged in any partnered sexual intimacy - Singles
Had sexual experience but often reported that it was not satisfying.
Unable to find and maintain relationships. - Partnered
Persons in sexless relationships.
Singleism: the stigmatizing and stereotyping of people who are not in a socially recognized couple relationship.
Predictors of remaining a virgin at age 28
- Male virginity
No sexual attraction in the past
Late puberal development
Being rated unattractive - Female virginity
Being overweight
Achieving low scores on a test of cognitive function
Attending religious services more frequently
Some young people plan to be celibate but not chaste.
Being single
The person who passes age 25 without getting married gradually enters a new world
- The social structures that supported dating (such as college) are gone
- More and more people of the same age are getting married
Singles scene: institutions for singles that provide opportunities for meeting others.
Technology has expanded the ways in which singles can meet.
Cell phones are not only play a role in meeting and screening potential partners, they are a major by which relationships are maintained and terminated.
Most singles do not have intercourse much.
Motives and the importance of scripts in their interactions with women of men
- Desire for sexual intimacy
Desire for sex was associated with playing the courtship game via the traditional script of male initiates and female controls - Desire for intimate relationships
Men moved from superficial to in-depth mutual intercourse
Sexual intimacy was a secondary goal - Desire for sexual passion
Immersion in the partner and the experience of high levels of arousal and lust
Usually
Attraction, love, and communication - a summary of chapter 11 of Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater
Sexology
Chapter 11
Attraction, love, and communication
Attraction
The girl next door
Our opportunities to meet people are limited by geography and time.
We tend to be more attracted to people with whom we have had contact several times than we are to people with whom we have had little contact.
Mere-exposure effect: the tendency to like a person more if we have been exposed to him or her repeatedly.
Birds of a feather
We like people who are similar to us.
We are attracted to people who are approximately the same was we are in age, race or ethnicity, and economic and social status.
Homophily: the tendency to have contact with people who are equal in social status.
We are attracted to people whose attitudes and opinions are similar to ours.
Reasons to be attracted to a person similar
- We get positive reinforcement from that person agreeing with us.
- Similarity in attitudes is important, in personality is not
- Similarity on attachment styles is associated with indicators of marital satisfaction
Similarity in attitudes is not
Physical attractiveness
Individuals prefer partners who are more physically attractive.
This effect depends on gender to some extent.
Physical attractiveness is more important to males evaluating females than it is to females evaluating males.
Our perception of attractiveness or beauty of another person is influenced by our evaluation of their intelligence, liking, respect, and our own objective attractiveness.
This phenomenon is somewhat modified by our own feelings of personal worth.
The interpersonal marketplace
Whom we are attracted to and pair off with depends a lot on how much we think we have to offer and how much we think we can ‘buy’ with it.
Matching phenomenon: the tendency for men and women to choose as partners people who match them. Who are similar in attitudes, intelligence, and attractiveness.
Generally, the principle seems to be that:
- Women’s worth is based on their physical beauty
- Men’s worth is based on their success
For both men and women, the person’s physical attractiveness is highly correlated with his/her education, income, and a measure of social status.
Attractiveness in high school is associated with greater social integration and favourable treatment by teachers and classmates.
This predicts education, work, and mental health outcomes as the person becomes an adult.
From the laboratory to real life
Perceived similarity: extent to which the individual believes his or her partner is similar on important characteristics.
Both perceived and actual similarity are associated with interpersonal attraction.
Perceived similarity is more important.
The nature and importance of matching varies as relationships develop.
Each individual’s
Gender and sexuality - a summary of chapter 12 of Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater
Sexology
Chapter 12
Gender and sexuality
Gender is one of the most basic status characteristics.
Gender binary: the classification of people into on of two categories, male or female.
Gender roles and stereotypes
One of the basic ways in which societies codify this emphasis on gender is through gender roles.
Gender role: a set of norms , or culturally defined expectations, that define how people of one gender ought to behave.
Stereotype: a generalization about a group of people that distinguishes them from others.
Gender roles and ethnicity
Gender roles are a product of culture.
Intersectionality: an approach that simultaneously considers the meaning and consequences of multiple categories of identify, difference, and dis-advantage.
According to this approach, we should not consider the effects of gender in isolation.
We should consider the effects of gender, race, social class, and sexual orientation simultaneously.
African Americans
Two factors are especially important in the cultural heritage of African Americans
- The heritage of African culture
- The experience in America of slavery and subsequent racial oppression.
African American culture emphasized the collective over the individual.
Stereotypes about black women are complex and contradictory.
Black men’s sexuality also has been stereotyped.
The stereotypes tend to be negative.
These stereotypes and discrimination that results can be a source of severe stress.
Latinos
Acculturalisation: the process of incorporating the beliefs and customs of a new culture.
Mexican American culture is based on the Mexican heritage, modified through acculturalsation to incorporate Anglo components.
The family is the central focus of Hispanic life.
In traditional Latin American cultures, gender roles are sharply defined.
Asian Americans
The cultural values of Asian Americans are in some ways consistent with white middle-class American values.
- Share an emphasis on achievement and the importance of education
- Asian Americans place far more value on family and group interdependence
- Asian Americans tend to hold more conservative sexual attitudes and to experience more anxiety about sex
The sexuality of Asian Americans is stereotyped.
The Asian American women has been stereotyped as a sex toy.
American Indians
Some Indian tribes had relatively egalitarian gender roles.
The process of acculturation hand adaptation to Anglo society seems to have resulted in increased male dominance.
Socialization
Socialization: the ways in which society conveys to the individual its norms or expectations for his or her behaviour.
Occurs especially in childhood, as children are taught to behave as they will be expected to in adulthood.
- Children may be rewarded for behaviour that is appropriate for their gender
Sexual orientation: Gay, Straight, or Bi? - a summary of chapter 13 of Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater
Sexology
Chapter 13
Sexual orientation: Gay, Straight, or Bi?
Sexual orientation: a person’s erotic and emotional orientation toward members of his or own gender or members of the other gender.
Homosexual: a person whose sexual orientation is toward members of the same gender
Heterosexual: a person whose sexual orientation is toward members of the other gender.
Bisexual: a person whose sexual orientation is toward both men and women.
Queer:a self-label used by some LGBs, as well as by some heterosexuals who prefer unusual sexual practices.
Attitudes toward Gays and Lesbians
Your sexual orientation has implications for the attitudes people have toward you.
Heteronormativity: the belief that heterosexuality is the norm.
Attitudes
Many Americans disapprove of homosexuality.
The gay liberation movement has a slow effect on changing the negative attitudes.
Homophobia: a strong, irrational fear of homosexuals; negative attitudes and reactions to homosexuals.
Antigay prejudice: negative attitudes and behaviours toward gays and lesbians.
Heterosexism: the belief that everyone is heterosexual and that heterosexuality is the norm.
Some prejudice is subtle.
The most extreme expressions of anti gay prejudice occur in hate crimes against LGBs.
Hate crimes against and harassment of sexual minority individuals are common whether physical, emotional, or sexual.
These incidents exact a psychological toll.
In previous decades there were almost no portrayals of gays, so they were invisible in the mass media.
There are now more representations of sexual minorities.
This has mixed results.
Gays and lesbians as a minority group
Like members of other minority groups, LGB people suffer from job discrimination.
Discrimination goes hand in hand with stereotypes.
LGBs, unlike other minorities, can hide their status.
- his makes it fairly easy to get along in the heterosexual world
- It encourages people to live and lie and to deny her or his true identity
This may be psychologically stressful
Life experiences of LGBs
There is a wide variety of experiences.
One of the most important aspects of this variability is whether the person is covert (in the closet) or overt (out of the closet) about his or her homosexuality.
The lifestyle of gay men differs somewhat from that of lesbians, as a result of the different roles assigned to males and females in our society.
There is more discrimination against gay men than
Variations in sexual behaviour - a summary of chapter 14 of Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater
Sexology
Chapter 14
Variations in sexual behaviour
When is sexual behaviour abnormal?
Defining abnormal
Sexual behaviour varies greatly from one culture to the next.
There is a corresponding variation in what is considered to be abnormal.
Statistical definition
An abnormal sexual behaviour is one that is rare.
This definition does not give us insight into the psychological or social functioning of the person.
Sociological approach
A behaviour that violence the norms of society.
Psychological approach
The three criteria of abnormality are discomfort, inefficiency and bizarreness.
Medical approach
Exemplified by the definitions included in the DSM-V.
Paraphilia: intense and persistent unconventional sexual interest.
The normal-abnormal continuum
There is a continuum from normal to abnormal sexual behaviour.
This continuum holds for many of the sexual variations.
Fetishism
Fetishism: a person’s sexual fixation on some object other than another human being and attachment of great erotic significance to that object.
A fetishistic disorder: sexual fantasies, urges, or behaviours involving the use of non-living objects to produce or enhance sexual arousal with or in the absence of a partner, over a period of at least 6 months and causing significant distress.
Inanimate-object fetishes can be roughly divided into two categories
- Media fetishes
- Form fetishes
Why do people develop fetishes?
Psychologists are not sure what causes fetishes to develop.
Three theoretical explanations
- Learning theory
Fetishes result from classical conditioning
A learned association is built between the fetish object and sexual arousal and orgasm. - Cognitive theory
Fetishes (or other paraphilics) have a serious cognitive distortion in that they perceive a nonconventional stimulus as erotic.
Further, the perception of arousal is distorted.- They feel driven to the sexual behaviour when aroused, but the arousal may actually be caused by feelings of guilt and self-loathing
There is a chain in which there are initial feelings of guilt as thoughts of the unconventional behaviour, which produces arousal, which is misinterpreted as sexual arousal, which leads to a feeling that the fetish ritual must be carried out; it is, and there are temporary feelings of relief, but the evaluation is negative, leading to further feelings of guilt and self-loathing
- They feel driven to the sexual behaviour when aroused, but the arousal may actually be caused by feelings of guilt and self-loathing
- Sexual addiction model
Fetishism typically develops early in life.
Cross-dressing
Cross-dressing: dressing as a member of the other gender.
Sexual coercion - a summary of chapter 15 of Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater
Sexology
Chapter 15
Sexual coercion
Rape
Rape: non-consenting oral, anal, or vaginal penetration obtained by force, by threat of force, or when the victim is incapable of giving consent.
Most statistics find that a woman’s lifetime risk of being raped is between 18 and 25 percent.
The impact of rape
Women who experience rape are more likely to show several types of psychological distress
- Anxiety
- Depression
- Suicide ideation and attempts
- Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Long-term psychological distress suffered by someone who has experienced a trauma.
People who have experienced a terrifying event form a memory schema that involves information about the situation and their responses to it.
Because the schema is large, many cues can trigger it and thereby evoke the feelings of terror that occurred at the time.
The schema is probably activated at some level all the time.
The consequences can be far reaching and long lasting.
Most women who experience a sexual assault have negative psychological reactions immediately afterwards.
Many show significant recovery within a year.
A number of factors are associated with worse psychological outcomes
- Whether the woman has experienced sexual violence previously
- The severity of the violence
- Reactions of others when the woman discloses the assault
Psychotherapeutic treatments for PTSD are available and they are successful in treating rape survivors.
Some women experience self-blame.
Self-blame is linked to worse long-term psychological outcomes.
Damage to women’s physical health that may result from rape
- Physical injuries
- Vaginal pain
- Women who have been forced to have oral sex may suffer irritation or damage to the throat
- Women who were forced to have anal intercourse may have rectal bleeding and pain
- Sexually transmitted infections
- Pregnancy
Rape affects many people besides the victim.
Most women routinely do a number of things that stem from rape fears.
Most women experience the fear of rape, if not rape itself, and this fear restricts their activities.
Spouses or partners of victims may be profoundly affected.
At the same time, they can provide important support.
Not everyone who experiences a serious traumatic event develops PTSD.
Posttraumatic growth: positive life changes and psychological development following exposure to trauma.
Date rape
Date rape is one of the most common forms of rape, especially on college campuses.
In some cases, date rape seems to result from male-female miscommunication.
- Men in general tend to misperceive women’s warmth and friendliness as indicating sexual interest
- Sexually aggressive men are likely to have a ‘suspicious schema’, meaning that they generally believe that women do not communicate honestly, particularly when the woman communicates clearly and assertively that she is rejecting an advance.
Marital rape
Marital
.....read more Sex for sale - a summary of chapter 16 of Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater
Sexology
Chapter 16
Sex for sale
Prostitution
Prostitutes/commercial sex workers: people who engage in sexual acts in return for payment and do so in a promiscuous, fairly non-discriminating fashion.
Venues for sex work
There are a number of settings or venues in which commercial sexual activity occurs.
The nature of the venue or social/sexual context influences the type of sex worker and client found, the activity that occurs, and its associated risks.
Call girl: the most expensive and exclusive category of prostitutes.
Works out of her own residence, making appointments with clients by a landline, cell phone or online.
Has heavy business expenses.
May have a number of regular customers and may accept new clients only on referral.
She can exercise close control over whom she sees and her schedule.
She usually sees clients in her residence.
She often provides an illusion of intimacy and may provide other services (like accompanying to business and social gatherings).
Brothel: a house of prostitution where prostitutes and customers meet for sexual activity.
In-call services:a residence in which prostitutes work regular shifts, selling sexual services on an hourly basis.
The sexual worker has generally less autonomy than a call girl.
There is usually a manager or madam who determines the conditions of work and the fees to be charged and who collects a substantial percentage of each fee.
Less choice of clients.
Massage parlor: a place where massages, as well as sexual services, can generally be purchased.
Some provide legitimate massage therapy.
Vary greatly in décor and price.
Out-call service: a service that sends a prostitute or sex worker to a location specified by the client to provide sexual services.
Streetwalker: a lower-status prostitute or sex worker who walks the streets selling sexual services.
Generally less attractive and less fashionably dressed than the call girl, and also charges less.
More likely to impose strict time constraints on the customer.
Little control over the condition in which they work, so greater risk.
Strip club: a bar or business that provides (almost) nude dancers and sexualized interactions, not necessarily physical sexual contact.
Exist along a continuum.
The internet and cell phones have had a major impact on the delivery of commercial sexual services.
The same person may work in several different venues over time.
The role of third parties
Pimp: a prostitute’s companion, protector and master.
If she has a pimp, she supports him with her earnings, and in return he may provide her with companionship and sex, bail her out of jail, an provide her with feed, shelter, clothing, and drugs.
May provide protection.
But may also abuse her.
Madam: a woman who manages a
.....read more Sexual disorders and sex therapy - a summary of chapter 17 of Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater
Sexology
Chapter 17
Sexual disorders and sex therapy
Sexual disorders cause a great deal of psychological distress to the individuals troubled by them and to their partners.
Sexual disorder: a problem with sexual response that causes a person mental distress.
This is a continuum.
- Lifelong sexual disorder: a sexual disorder that has been present ever since the person began sexual functioning.
- Acquired sexual disorder: a sexual disorder that develops after a period of normal functioning
Kinds of sexual disorders
Desire disorders
Sexual desire: an interest in sexual activity, leading the individual to seek out sexual activity or to be pleasurably receptive to it.
Hypoactive sexual desire (HSD): a sexual disorder in which there is a lack of interest in sexual activity.
Found in both men and women.
Too little sexual desire is the most common sexual issue reported by women.
But, there are also many circumstances when it is normal for a person’s desire to be inhibited.
The problem is not the individual’s absolute level of sexual desire but a discrepancy between the partners’ levels.
Discrepancy of sexual desire: a sexual disorder in which the partners have considerably different levels of sexual desire.
Female sexual interest/arousal disorder: a diagnosis in the DSM-V that encompasses lack of interest in sexual activity and absent or reduced arousal during sexual interactions.
The diagnosis is limited to women.
Arousal disorders
Female sexual arousal disorder
Female sexual arousal disorder: a sexual disorder in which there is a lack of response to sexual stimulation, including lack of lubrication.
Involves both a subjective, psychological component and a physiological element.
Problems with lubrication become more frequent after menopause.
Erectile disorder
Erectile disorder: the inability to have or maintain an erection.
One result is that the man cannot engage in sexual intercourse.
- Lifelong erectile disorder
Cases of erectile disorder in which the man has never had an erection sufficient to have intercourse - Acquired erectile disorder
Cases of erectile disorder in which the man at one time was able to have satisfactory erections but can no longer do so.
Psychological reactions to erectile disorder may be severe.
Orgasmic disorders
Premature ejaculation
Premature ejaculation (PE): a sexual disorder in which the man ejaculates too soon and thinks he cannot control when he ejaculates.
In practice it is difficult to specify when a man is a premature ejactulator.
- Ejaculation that always or almost always occurs prior to or within one minute of vaginal penetration
- The inability to delay ejaculation
- Distress about the problem
A common problem
.....read more Sexually transmitted infections - a summary of chapter 18 of Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater
Sexology
Chapter 18
Sexually transmitted infections
Bacterial infections can be cured by antibiotics.
Viral infections cannot be cured, but they can be treated to reduce symptoms.
Chlamydia
Chlamydia trachomatis: a bacterium that is spread by sexual contact and infects the genital organ of both males and females.
Symptoms
- Men
Thin, clear discharge
Mild pain on urination - Females
Frequently asymptomatic
Treatment
Chlamydia is quite curable.
Treated with axithromycin or doxycycline.
Poorly treated or undiagnosed cases may lead to a number of complications
- Urethral damage
- Epididymitis
- Reither’s syndrome
- Procititis in men who have had anal intercourse
- Women
Pelvic inflammatory disease: an infection and inflammation of the pelvic organs.
Prevention
Until a vaccine is available, the most effective tools for prevention is screening.
On individual level, the best way of prevention is the consistent use of a condom.
HPV
HPV: human papillomavirus, the virus that causes cervical cancer.
Genital warts: a sexually transmitted infection causing warts on the genitals.
Typically appear 3 to 8 months after intercourse with an infected person.
The majority of people infected with HPV are asymptomatic.
Oral sex can transmit HPV.
Diagnosis
A DNA test can be run on a sample of cells from the cervix to detect the types that are linked to genital cancers.
For warts, diagnosis can be made by inspecting the warts.
But warts are not always produced or visible.
Treatment
Several treatments for genital warts are available.
Chemicals can be applied directly to the warts. Typically this have to be repeated several times, and the warts then fall off.
With cryotherapy the warts are frozen off.
Drugs can be applied.
Many cases of HPV infection go away on their own, but others persist for long periods.
Vaccine
A vaccination against cervical cancer.
Genital herpes
Genital herpes: a sexually transmitted infection, the symptoms of which are small, painful bumps or blisters on the genitals.
The great majority is asymptomatic and do not know they are infected.
These persons transmit the disease unknowingly.
Symptoms
Small, painful bumps or blisters on the genitals.
Typically appear within 2 or 3 weeks of infection.
Fever, painful urination, and headaches may occur.
The blisters heal on their own in about 3 weeks in the fist episode of infection.
But the virus continues to live in the body
Ethics, religion, and sexuality - a summary of chapter 19 of Understanding human sexuality by Hyde and DeLamater
Sexology
Chapter 19
Ethics, religion, and sexuality
Basic concepts
Ethics: a system of moral principles; a ways of determining right and wrong.
Religion is a source of values, attitudes, and ethics.
For believers, religion sets forth an ethical code and provides sanctions that motivate them to obey the rules.
When a particular religion is practices by many people in a society, it helps create a culture, which then influences even those who do not accept the religion.
Hedonism: a moral system based on maximizing pleasure and avoiding pain.
Asceticism: an approach to life emphasizing discipline and impulse control.
Legalism: ethics based on the assumption that there are rules for human conduct and that morality consists of knowing the rules and obeying them.
Situationism: ethics based on the assumption that there are no absolute rules, or at least very few, and that each situation must be judged individually.
Sexuality in great ethical traditions
Classical Greek philosophy
While nothing in Greek culture rejected sex as evil, the great philosophers did develop a kind of asceticism.
They thought that virtue resulted from wisdom.
To achieve wisdom and cultivate virtue, violent passions must be avoided, and these might well include sex.
Plate believed that love led toward immortality and was therefore a good thing.
But this kind of love was mainly intellectual and more like friendship than sexuality.
Pederasty: sex between an older man and a younger man, or a boy.
Approved especially among the warrior class.
The older man was to serve as the younger one’s teacher and model of courage and virtue.
Ataraxia: a tranquil state between pleasure and pain in which the mind is unaffected by emotion.
Sex was not necessarily seen as evil, but as less important than wisdom and virtue.
Judaism
The basis for Judaism are the old testament of the bible.
The view of sexuality in the Hebrew scriptures is fundamentally positive.
Human sexual differentiation is an integral part of creation, which God calls ‘good’.
Judaism sees sexuality as a gift to be used responsibly and in obedience to God’s will, never as something evil in itself.
The command to marry and to procreate within marriage is clear.
Three themes of sexuality
- Sex is a deep and intimate part of a relationship between two people
- In the Hebrew scriptures, sexuality could never be separated from its social consequences.
- Hebrew scriptures see sexual behaviour as an aspect of national and religious loyalty
Fertility cult:a
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