There are two historical examples of studies that violated several ethical criteria.

1. Tuskegee Syphilis Study
   This experiment involves black men diagnosed with syphilis, who were lied to, not told that the experiment was about syphilis and intentionally not treated. Participants in this study were not treated respectfully, they were harmed and the researcher targeted a disadvantaged social group in this study.
2. Milgram Obedience Studies
   This experiment shows that ethical violations are often much more nuanced. Participants in this experiment were debriefed after the experiment. It also shows that balancing the potential risks to participants and the value of the knowledge gained is not an easy decision.

The Belmont Report outlines three main principles for guiding ethical decision making:

1. Principle of respect for persons
   This includes two provisions. The participants should be treated as autonomous agents. Each person is entitled to the precaution of informed consent. People with less autonomy (e.g: children, mentally disabilities) should be protected. Coercion is an implicit or an explicit suggestion that those who do not participate will suffer a negative consequence.
2. The principle of beneficence
   Researchers must take precautions to protect the participants of harm and to ensure their well-being. Valuable knowledge must be gained while inflicting as less as possible harm. To prevent harm by collecting personal data, the study can be conducted as an anonymous study. In a confidential study, researchers collect some identifying information, but prevent it from being disclosed.
3. The principle of justice
   This calls for a fair balance between the kinds of people who participate in a study and the kinds of people who benefit from it.

The APA outlines five general principles for guiding individual aspects of ethical behaviour. Three of the give general principles are the same principles as in the Belmont Report. The other two are:

1. Fidelity and responsibility
   Establish relationships of trust. Accept the responsibility for professional behaviour (e.g: a psychologist not treating a student or a professor not dating a student).
2. Integrity
   Strive to be accurate, truthful and honest (e.g: professors are obligated to teach accurately).

The APA lists ten specific ethical standards. These standards are similar to enforceable rules or laws.

1. Institutional review boards
   An institutional review board is a committee responsible for interpreting ethical principles and ensuring that research using human participants is conducted ethically.

When conducting animal research, the three R’s apply:

1. Replacement
   Researchers should find alternatives to animals in research when possible.
2. Refinement
   Researchers must modify experimental procedures and other aspects of animal care to minimize or eliminate animal distress.
3. Reduction
   Researchers should adopt experimental designs and procedures that require the fewest animal subjects possible.

Animal right groups typically use two arguments. Animals experience the same type of suffering humans experience and animals have inherent rights, equal to those of humans. Animal researchers defend their use of animal subjects with three primary arguments: it brings numerous benefits to humans and animals alike, animal researchers are sensitive to animal welfare and researchers have successfully reduced the number of animals they need to use because of new procedures that do not require animal testing.