What is this article about?

Global health and development policies focus mostly on teenage girls, as gender inequalities make them more disadvantaged and vulnerable. However, there are convincing reasons to take a closer look at adolescent boys. Their transition from childhood to adolescence is associated with several health problems and risk factors that influence their health during their whole life (e.g. injuries, violence, suicide, aids, alcohol, drugs, tobacco). Males are also less likely to seek help than females, and their behaviors have a significant impact on the well-being and health of females.

A frequently ignored contributing factor to the health behaviors of teenage boys is their gender socialization to adopt stereotypical or unequal attitudes related to masculinity. Early adolescence is a critical phase for the development of gender attitudes, especially because the start of puberty evokes and intensifies gender related expectations. A recent review on gender attitudes of young teenagers demonstrates that girls and boys experience significant different sources and pressures of gender socialization.

This article focuses on the types of masculinity norms and the key factors that shape the gender attitudes of boys. Certain interventions could address damaging masculinity norms.

What masculinity norms are endorsed by young adolescents?

Teenagers endorse masculinity norms linked to autonomy (e.g. providing, protecting, independency), psychical toughness (e.g. fighting, competing, high pain tolerance), heterosexual prowess (e.g. having sex with lots of girls, having control over girlfriends) and emotional stoicism (e.g. avoiding acting girly or showing vulnerability, not reaching out to others for help). Teenage boys are also more likely to endorse unequal norms related to gender. There are three possible explanations:

1. Norms that privilege males are considered ‘normal’, so boys are not tempted to challenge them.
2. Teenage boys experience greater relative power and freedom than girls, so they might not feel the need to challenge their privileges.
3. Boys that want to act more feminine or strive for equity face more social obstacles (stigmatization, labeling, ridicule) than girls.

What factors influence the gender attitudes of boys?

Various factors contribute to the gender socialization of teenagers, but peers and parents play a key role. The contribution of the parents involves direct and indirect communication, like different expectations, rules and sanctions for sons and daughters. During the transition into adolescence, (male) peers play a key role in the establishment of masculinity norms. They verbally and physically challenge each other, and encourage risky behavior (e.g. sex, alcohol). Not complying with these norms leads to ridicule, bullying or insults.

Some studies indicate that schools also shape gender attitudes in early adolescence. The same goes for social media.

How can masculinity norms and gender attitudes be changed?

Most interventions to alter masculinity norms concern the prevention of violence against women and people with HIV. They focus on older boys and men. Reviews that examined the results of interventions regarding gender attitudes and sexual behaviors among young boys and men indicated that participatory activities in a small group to provoke reflection about unequal gender attitudes might be successful. However, the reviews also show that improved gender attitudes do not equal changed behaviors. A review of programs that focus on the prevention of violence against women provides three lessons:

1. Changing masculinity norms and gender attitudes requires the involvement of both boys and girls.
2. Prevention requires working with communities, like schools, families and the broader societal setting.
3. Next to challenging norms of male privilege, entitlement, power and control over females, it is also important to respond to males’ own trauma, marginalization, social exclusion and victimization.

What are the limitations of the current policies and programs?

It is during early adolescence when gender attitudes are formed and equitable norms are built. Masculinity norms should be influenced by policies and programs during this phase. In order to change these norms, boys need to be motivated to challenge the privilege and power they have, and to address stigmatization and ridicule of the ones that don’t comply to the norms. Changing norms requires a socioecological approach, targeted at individual males, peers, schools, parents and communities.

There is a number of gaps in the research regarding intervention programs that need to be addressed. Most of the research on gender socialization comes from high-income countries. More evidence from middle- and low-income countries is needed. Also, there is a need for valid and reliable measures of gender attitudes in adolescents that can be consistently used. Longer time frames are needed in evaluation designs. It needs to be more clear which parental aspects influence the development of gender attitudes. There is a need for more evidence regarding school approaches and sexual education. The bad influence and potential uses of (social) media needs to be better understood. Lastly, adolescent girls need to be empowered, by helping them build agency and self-esteem.