This article explains evolutionary psychology and some important findings in the field.

What is evolutionary psychology?

Evolutionary psychology is a multidisciplinary field that combines insights from evolutionary theory, biology, cognitive psychology, anthropology, economics, computer science, and paleoarchaeology. It is based on several core premises:

• Manifest behavior is influenced by underlying psychological mechanisms in the brain, along with external and internal inputs.
• Evolution by selection is the primary process responsible for creating complex organic mechanisms (adaptations).
• Evolved psychological mechanisms are specialized to solve adaptive problems that humans have faced throughout evolution.
• Selection has designed these psychological mechanisms to be influenced by specific classes of information from the environment.
• Human psychology consists of a multitude of specialized evolved mechanisms that interact with each other and with external variables to produce adaptive behavior.

These tenets imply that genetic determinism alone cannot explain human behavior, as environmental input is necessary at each stage of development. It is essential to distinguish between underlying psychological mechanisms and manifest behavior. Additionally, social and cultural factors are integral to understanding human behavior. Evolutionary psychology emphasizes the flexibility of human behavior, enabled by a variety of context-dependent evolved psychological adaptations.

What is the relationship between feminism and evolutionary psychology?

The relationship between feminism and evolutionary psychology has historically been complex. Feminist scholars initially showed skepticism towards evolutionary approaches, fearing they could be used to justify gender inequalities. However, some feminist scientists who identified as both feminists and evolutionists fostered a rapprochement between the two fields. More recently, there has been a growing recognition that evolutionary psychology can complement feminist scholarship and contribute to a better understanding of gender dynamics and power relations.

What is Sexual Strategies Theory?

Sexual Strategies Theory proposes that humans have diverse mating strategies, influenced by evolutionary logic and contextual variables. It predicts gender differences in mating behavior, such as men's greater desire for sexual variety. Empirical studies support this hypothesis, showing men's higher interest in short-term mating and more sex partners. Women also benefit from short-term mating, but sex differences in expressed desires for sexual variety exist. Despite skepticism, empirical evidence continues to support these differences. It's important to distinguish between evolved desires and actual behavior, as factors like status influence mating success.

How did beauty standards evolve?

Beauty standards' evolution is debated between social scientists and evolutionary psychologists. Social scientists argue that beauty is a social construct, while evolutionary psychologists propose that it's rooted in observable cues related to fertility and health. Universally valued cues include youthfulness and physical attractiveness, with waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) suggested as an indicator of health and fertility. However, conflicting evidence exists, and the importance of different cues is still under investigation. Despite the evolutionary basis, feminists and evolutionary psychologists agree that the emphasis on physical beauty can harm women, leading to issues like eating disorders and objectification. Feminist perspectives should consider the scientific understanding of attractiveness's evolutionary foundations.

How have women adapted to ovulation?

Ovulation plays a crucial role in women's reproductive biology, providing a short window for conception. While it was once believed to be concealed, recent studies challenge this idea. Men may have adaptations to detect ovulation, as they find certain cues, such as changes in women's voices, body odors, and physical features, more attractive during ovulation. Women may also have adaptations, potentially shifting their mate preferences towards men with markers of good genes. While there is ongoing debate and further research is needed, evolutionary psychology has been instrumental in uncovering these ovulation effects that were previously overlooked. Overall, evidence suggests that ovulation effects exist, but they are likely more complex and context-specific than initially thought.

Why is risk taking appealing in human mating?

Risk-taking is seen as more appealing in short-term mates than in long-term partners, according to Sylwester and Pawlowski (2010). Men's risk-taking behavior signals good genes and potential generosity, aligning with women's short-term mating strategy. Women's risk-taking may signal sexual availability and ease of pursuit. In long-term relationships, high levels of risk-taking are disfavored due to potential risks to survival, stability, and parental investment. The study confirmed that both genders prefer risk-takers in short-term mating. Future research should explore the specific reasons behind women's attraction to risk-taking and examine different social circumstances. These findings imply that men prioritize women as "sex objects" in short-term mating, while women prioritize men as "success objects" for resources and genetic quality. Long-term mating emphasizes consistency and reliability over uncertain resource gains from risk-taking behavior.

How can rape and other forms of sexual victimization be understood?

Vandermassen (2010) suggests that evolutionary and feminist perspectives on the causes of rape can be integrated. Points of convergence include the control of resources and power by men, men's control of women through resources, and the central role of sexuality and reproduction in men's control of women. Vandermassen criticizes evolutionary psychologists for downplaying anger and hostility as motivations for rape, which feminist scholars emphasize. Both sexual and hostile motivations contribute to understanding the causes of rape. Possible causes of male anger and hostility include rejection by women and psychopathy. Vandermassen also critiques Thornhill's work on psychological pain in rape victims. It is important to keep an open mind about the hypothesis of evolved adaptations for sexual coercion. Rape is condemned regardless of its causes. The causes of sexual coercion can be adaptations for rape or byproducts of adaptations in non-rape contexts. The evidence is insufficient to conclude that rape itself is a facultative adaptation in human males. Researchers should continue to investigate the underlying causes of rape for the benefit of victims.

What can evolutionary psychology tell about lesbian mate preferences?

The Smith et al. (2010) study examines partner preferences among butch and femme lesbians and heterosexual individuals. It highlights the diversity of mate preferences within the lesbian community. However, the study's findings do not directly relate to the metatheoretical paradigm of evolutionary psychology or "evolutionary psychology theory." Evolutionary psychology encompasses various hypotheses and predictions about different phenomena. Therefore, testing a specific hypothesis does not validate or invalidate evolutionary psychology as a whole. Furthermore, the mate preferences of lesbian women, including individual differences along the butch and femme dimensions, do not significantly contribute to evolutionary psychology or Sexual Strategies Theory.