Social Psychology by R. Smith, M. Mackie, and M. Claypool (fourth edition) – Summary chapter 10

Norms can only influence behaviour if the norm is activated and thus the most activated norm is often followed. There are several things that can activate norms. Norms can be activated by direct reminders (1), environments (2) and groups (3).

If we encounter an environment repeatedly we make mental associations between the environment and norms that apply there (e.g: people are quiet in a library). When these mental connections are so well learned the environment itself can activate the appropriate behaviour.

People are likely to follow in-group norms. The thing that makes groups salient activates the group’s norms. The more group members who are present, the more accessible and effective the group norm is. Out-group comparisons can change the perception of a norm and change behaviour. The more accessible the in-group norm, the more likely we are to use it to guide our behaviour.

Deindividuation refers to the psychological state in which group or social identity completely dominates personal or individual identity so that group norms become maximally accessible. Deindividuation should maximally increase the tendency of individual members to join in whatever behaviour the group is performing. Deindividuation increases whatever behaviour is typical of the group.

Descriptive norms are norms that describe what people think, feel or do. Injunctive norms describe what group members believe people should think, feel or do. Both norms guide behaviour. Biased estimates can lead us to follow the crowd although the estimate about what the crowd is doing is false. The perception of what others are doing can guide our behaviour. Injunctive norms can also guide behaviour, although people often misperceive injunctive norms. If descriptive and injunctive norms mismatch, behavioural intentions are low. The type of norms people use to guide behaviour depends on the motivation and ability to think about it. If someone does not have the motivation and/or ability to think about it, descriptive norms are used, otherwise, injunctive norms are used. Injunctive norm information has stronger effects on behavioural intentions.

Social norms are accepted because people accept group consensus as truly reflecting reality and expressing the kind of people they are. Surveillance undermines group identity and decreases conformity. Norms can be enforced by reward and punishment. People have automatic readiness to perceive norm-relevant information.

The norm of reciprocity is the shared view that people are obligated to return to others the goods, services and concessions they offer to us. Adherence to this norm builds trust, strengthening the bonds that hold the group together. Even after paying back favour, so there is no need for reciprocation, people are more likely to accept another request.

The door-in-the-face technique is a technique in which the influencer makes an initial request so large that it will be rejected, and follows it with a smaller request that looks like a concession, making it more likely that the other person will concede in turn. This technique will activate the norm of reciprocity when three conditions exist: the initial request must be large enough that it is sure to be refused but not so large that it will breed resentment or suspicion (1), the target must be given the chance to compromise (2) and the second request must be related to the first request (3).

The norm of social commitment is the shared view that people are required to honour their agreements and obligations. The low-ball technique is a technique in which the influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the cost of honouring the commitment. The norm of social commitment and the norm of reciprocity are stronger in collectivistic cultures.

Obedience to authority can occur regardless of participant, culture, setting or time. The norm of obedience to authority is the shared view that people should obey those with legitimate authority. Legitimacy derives from the group. Obedience to authority can be enforced but is often motivated by private feelings that authority should be obeyed. There are several conditions in order for someone to obey to authority.

The authority must be legitimate (1), authority must accept responsibility (2) and the norm of obedience must be activated (3).

The facial expression, tone of voice, posture and emotional expression can all convey status and power. A uniform is an obvious cue to authority. The agentic state refers to people seeing themselves as the agent of the authority figure. They believe that they only perform actions of others and not their own. If responsibility is displaced or diffused, people ignore the possibility that they could or should control their own behaviour. The more obvious the authority figure is, the more likely it is that the norm of obedience is activated. Physically distancing oneself from the event is a way to suppress other norms that are incompatible with obedience. Psychologically distancing oneself works too. A potential consequence of obeying commands that hurt others is blaming the victim.

The gradual escalation of obedience reinforces the legitimacy of the authority and the acceptance of the norm of obedience. Dissonance processes also help maintain obedience once it occurs.

There are three processes that lead to resistance rather than capitulation.

Reactance is the motive to protect or restore a threatened sense of behavioural freedom. Reactance is bypassed if someone is perceived as having legitimate authority. Systematic processing is another way to resist obedience. Attempting to resist social influence may leave one more susceptible to later influence attempts. Systematic processing can make use of three strategies:

1. Question how norms are being used
   If people realize a norm is being used against them, it loses its power.
2. Question claims about relationships
   Questioning relationships and reasserting an individual identity lowers the pull of norms.
3. Question others’ views of the situation
   The sooner you offer an alternative the better, because the longer someone else’s definition of the situation is accepted, the harder it will be to resist.

Using norms against norms is another way of resisting obedience to a norm. By providing an alternative consensus, the norm that requires obedience can be resisted. Group-based anger and high group efficacy help instigate resistance to and rebellion from established norms.

There are two ways in which attitudes and norms guide behaviour. In the superficial route, attitudes and norms can guide behaviour rather simply and directly. Attitudes and norms are especially likely to affect behaviour directly when the resources and motivation to process systematically are not available. People have implicit norms that are distinct from implicit attitudes and they can guide behaviour. In the thoughtful route, perceptions of control, attitudes and perceived norms are used in, order to guide behaviour.

When attitudes and norms disagree, their impact on behaviour depends on their relative accessibility. Whichever is more accessible will have a greater influence on behaviour. Individual attitudes tend to have more influence over private, individual behaviours.