Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of how people and animals process information. It studies how we acquire information, store information in memory, retrieve information and work with information to reach goals. In all these cases, individuals deal with internal or mental representations.

There is a long history of cognitive psychology:

1. Ancient Greeks (500 B.C)
   Plato stated that there is ultimate knowledge and we only see representations of that. The ancient Greeks are also the founders of epistemology.
2. Empiricism and associationism (17th – 19th century)
   Empiricists stated that all knowledge comes from experience and the followers of the associationism stated that ideas and memories were linked by associations (e.g: cow and milk are associated and thus easier remembered together).
3. Introspectionism
   The followers of Introspectionism stated that all cognitive processes could be consciously reported by using introspection. The disadvantages of this are that it required a lot of training and could not be used with a lot of people, with children and with people with reduced mental capacities. The idea that all cognitive processes could be consciously reported was later debunked because a person is not able to report how that person perceives visual illusions. Besides that, reporting a process also has the potential to slow down the process.
4. Behaviourism
   This approach states that it is impossible to know what cognitive processes are active. The only observable things are the input and the output. It also states that all behaviour can be explained by reinforcement and punishment; all mental phenomena could be traced to behavioural activity. Behaviourists also state that language is learned by reinforcement and punishment as well.

Tolman was a behaviourist but was the beginning of the end for behaviourism. He stated that rats have mental maps or mental representations of a spatial layout. Tolman partially debunked the behaviourist approach of describing basic behaviour by his experiment showing latent learning; animals learning even though there was no reward. The behaviourist approach had many successes in accounting for basic animal learning, it was less applicable to complex mental phenomena such as reasoning, problem-solving, decision making and language.

An information processing approach is an approach for understanding mental activity, based on computing. Computer programs to solve suitable problems could be seen as comparable strategies that humans might use to solve the same problems. Strategies are systematic ways to carry out a cognitive task. A simulation program is a program which expresses a model of human thinking and involves programming computers to solve problems in a similar way to humans. The difference between a simulation program and artificial intelligence is that A.I tries to solve the problem as effectively as possible, without any attempt at mimicking human strategies.

Theorists using the information processing approach try to explain performance in cognitive tasks by using concepts of internal representations, which are transformed by mental operations. Internal representations are the mental representations of external objects and events. Mental operations are

Attention is a limited resource that is deployed to facilitate the processing of critical information. One basic taxonomy of attention states that there are two types of attention:

1. Internal attention
   This refers to selecting control strategies and maintaining internally generated information, such as rules, responses, long-term and working memory. It involves regulating our internal mental life. Internal attention deals with our internally generated thoughts, desires and motivations.
2. External attention
   This refers to selecting and controlling incoming sensory information.

Posner stated that there is an attention system, that exists of three different systems:

1. Alerting (brain stem and frontal cortex)
   This is responsible for achieving a state of arousal. It uses the neurotransmitter norepinephrine.
2. Orienting (frontal and parietal cortex, including the frontal eye fields)
   This is responsible for directing our processing resources to incoming information. It can be described as external attention. It uses the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
3. Executive function (medial frontal and parietal cortex)
   This is responsible for the supervision of attention. It decides where the attention should go. It can be described as internal attention. It uses the neurotransmitter dopamine.

The cocktail party problem refers to focusing on one speaker in a background of noise and other conversations. There are several theories of attention. There are filter theories, that describe when we process the incoming information:

1. Theory of early selection
   The sensory memory briefly maintains information from all perceptual systems and only the relevant information gets stored in the short-term memory. The irrelevant information gets sorted out early on in the information processing cycle.
2. Theory of late selection
   All sensory information is identified, but only attended information gets stored for further processing. The irrelevant information gets sorted out late in the early information processing cycle and is processed before it gets filtered out.
3. Theory of attenuation
   The intensity of the irrelevant information is diminished, but not eliminated. The irrelevant information is processed, but the intensity of this information is diminished so that only the relevant information makes it to the working memory.
4. Workload theory of attention
   This theory states that the amount of processing the unattended stimuli receive depends upon how difficult it is to process the attended target. If the workload is low, the selection is late, if the workload is high, the selection is early. If a distractor is used in experiments, then this distractor has a larger effect with a low workload.

The resource theory of attention uses the metaphor of the spotlight. This refers to the ‘spotlight of attention’ that illuminates locations of interest. The zoom lens theory uses this metaphor. The size of the spotlight depends on the size of the object that requires our attention. Evidence that attention is a resource comes from experiments by Egly, that show that attention can be bound to an object, instead of a spatial area. An explanation for this

The case of H.M demonstrates three important aspects of long-term memory processes:

1. Long-term memory processes are not distributed throughout the brain.
2. Long-term memory encompasses a number of different abilities.
3. Memory is separable from language, perceptual and other cognitive functions.

Amnesia refers to a pattern of memory loss affecting elements of long-term memory, while short-term memory remains intact. It is sometimes also called the amnesic syndrome. Amnesia has a number of general characteristics:

1. Short-term memory is intact
2. Memory for language and concepts is intact
3. There is severe and lasting anterograde amnesia: memory for events after the onset of amnesia will be impaired.
4. There will be retrograde amnesia, the patient will have a loss of memory for events prior to the onset of amnesia.
5. Skill learning, conditioning and priming will be unaffected.

Ribot’s law states that recently formed memories are more susceptible to impairment than are older memories. The Wechsler Memory Scale is a widely used neurocognitive assessment that measures visual memory, auditory memory and working memory. There are several causes for amnesia, such as brain surgery, infections, head injuries, a stroke or Korsakoff’s syndrome, in which a thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency causes brain damage.

James made the difference between primary and secondary memory. Secondary memory is long-term memory. Verbal learning refers to the area of experimental psychology concerned with how we learn and remember language-based items. There is a distinction in long-term memory between the following to long-term memory types:

1. Non-declarative memory (implicit memory)
   This is the memory that is not accessed consciously and that we are not able to report verbally. It includes memory which benefits from previous experience but without our awareness of that experience.
2. Declarative memory (explicit memory)
   This is the memory that involves conscious recollection of memories such as events, facts, people and places.

There are three types of recollection of information from the memory:

1. Free recall
   Participants in a task recall the information in any order, without hints or clues to recall.
2. Cued recall
   Participants in a task recall the information and are given a hint to aid the recall.
3. Recognition
   Participants must verify if an item is a target.

Tulving proposed a distinction within declarative memory. The distinction can also be seen as a difference between remembering and knowing.

1. Episodic memory
   This is the memory for events, experiences and episodes (e.g: yesterday was a good day).
2. Semantic memory
   This is the memory for facts and knowledge about the world (e.g: Paris is the capital of France).

There are different types of non-declarative memory, all showing implicit memory:

1. Procedural memory
   This includes skill learning. It is closely associated with motor performance, but cognitive skills and some perceptual learning skills are also aspects of procedural memory. Focussing our attention on a

Concepts are mental representations of classes of items (e.g: dogs). Imagery is the mental representation of sensory properties of objects, experiences as like perceiving the object but with less vividness than in reality. There are different approaches to concepts.

The definitional approach looks at the definition of an object in order to form a concept. The concepts are based on the definition of the word. This approach looks for well-defined concepts. The main problem with this approach is that most everyday concepts are not so well defined.

The prototype approach looks at the most typical of a ‘family’ of concepts which represents the other concepts. Typicality is the extent to which an object is representative of a category. Members of a category share a family resemblance. This is the tendency for members of a category to be similar to each other but without having any characteristic in common to all of them. The more an item of a category has a family resemblance, the more typical it is deemed to be. The item in a category that has the highest overall family resemblance to the other category members is the prototype of that category. The prototype is an ideal example that best represents a category. The prototype does not have to exist. It is the statistically average member of the category. Categories and concepts typically form into hierarchies. Lower level categories are nested within higher-level categories. The mid-level category is the basic level of categorization. These are categories formed of items that are highly similar and at an intermediate level in a concept hierarchy. The problems with the prototype approach are that some objects are more readily categorized as something, even though it looks more like a different prototype and some things don’t have prototypes, such as rules or beliefs. Ad hoc categories are categories formed of items that meet a given goal. The family resemblance does not work for ad hoc categories.

The exemplar-based approach proposes that categories are represented purely by stored examples or instances and each example Is linked to the category name. If a new item’s similarity to already known items is above a certain threshold it becomes a member of that category. The exemplar approach readily represents variability within a category, which the prototype approach does not.

The theory/knowledge-based approach uses knowledge in order to categorize items. It includes causal information and causal knowledge is used in order to categorize items.

Essentialism is the view that all members of a given category share some key property. This does not have to be something that can be seen from the outside (e.g: a bird without feathers is still a bird). Barton argued that there are different types of concepts which may have different forms of essential properties:

1. Nominal concepts
   These are concepts which have clear definitions. The essential part is easy to locate here (e.g: triangles are three-sided closed figures).
2. Natural kind concepts
   

A problem is a situation in which you have a goal but do not know how to achieve it. Thinking is a process of mental exploration of possible actions and states of the world. Problems can be well-defined problems or ill-defined problems. Well-defined problems are problems in which starting conditions, actions available and goals are all completely specified. Ill-defined problems are problems in which starting conditions, or actions available or goals are not completely specified. Problems can be knowledge-rich or knowledge-lean. Knowledge-rich problems are problems that require extensive specialist knowledge. Knowledge-lean problems are problems that do not require specialist knowledge. Problems may also be classified as non-adversary or adversary problems. Non-adversary problems are problems in which the solver is dealing with inert problem materials with no rational opponent. Adversary problems are problems in which the solver has to deal with a rational opponent.

There are two main historical approaches that are influential in problem-solving and thinking:

The Gestalt approach. This approach to thinking likens problem-solving to seeing new patterns. It stresses the role of insight and understanding of problem-solving. The key process was restructuring. This changing how one represents a problem. A restructuring that leads to a rapid solution is insight. The path to insight is often characterised by restructuring the overall problem in sub-problems. Set is a tendency to persist with one approach to a problem. Functional fixity is a difficulty in thinking of a novel use for a familiar object.

The information processing approach. The problem space is an abstract representation of possible states of a problem. There are two sub-types: state-action spaces (upside-down tree diagram) and goal-subgoal spaces. State-action space is a representation of how problems can be transformed from starting state through intermediate states to the goal The goal-subgoal space is a representation of how an overall problem goal can be broken down into subgoals and sub-subgoals. Three methods can be used to analyse the  state-action tree:

1. Depth-first search (light load on memory)
   Only one possible move is considered at a time.
2. Breadth-first search (heavy working memory load)
   Each possible move at each level is considered. It is an algorithm, this is a problem-solving method that is guaranteed to solve but may do so only with high mental load.
3. Progressive deepening (compromise method)
   The depth-first method is used to a limited depth. When depth limit is reached, the search backs up to start and repeats, avoiding previously explored branches and so on until the whole space has been searched up to the initial depth limit. If a solution is not found, the depth limit is increased. It is an algorithmic method but can be quicker than the breadth-first search, because it has the possibility of being lucky.

The method of hill-climbing uses intermediate evaluations. This is a heuristic method. A heuristic is a problem-solving method that often finds a low effort solution but is not guaranteed to solve the problem. Problems with

Reasoning is the cognitive process of deriving new information from old information. Deductive reasoning is drawing logically necessary conclusions from given information. It’s going from the general to the specific. Inductive reasoning is the process of inferring probable conclusions from given information. It’s going from the specific to the general. Premises are statements assumed to be true from which conclusions are drawn. Valid arguments are those in which the conclusions must be true if the premises are true.

Deductive reasoning has two types:

1. Propositional reasoning
   This is reasoning about statements connected by logical relations, such as ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘not’ and ‘if’.
2. Syllogistic reasoning
   This is reasoning about groups or sets using statements connected by logical relations of ‘some’, ‘none’, ‘all’ and ‘some not’.

Inference rules are rules for reaching a conclusion given a particular pattern of propositions. There are multiple inference rules:

1. Modus ponens
   ‘If A, then B. ‘A’, so ‘B. It’s affirming the first premise.
2. Modus tollens
   ‘If A, then B’. Not ‘B’, so not ‘A’.
3. Double negation
   Not ‘not A’, so ‘A’.

There are two main mistakes:

1. Confirming the consequent
   ‘If A, then B’. ‘B’, so ‘A’. This is invalid reasoning. If the consequent is confirmed, this does not mean that the first premise is correct.
2. Denying the antecedent
   ‘If A, then B’. Not ‘A’, so not ‘B’. This is invalid reasoning. If the antecedent is denied, this does not mean that the second premise is incorrect.

People are better at reasoning with the modus ponens (100%) than with the modus tollens (60%). The two fallacies are rejected in about 25% of the cases. It could be that people do poorly on the modus tollens because of misinterpretation of the premises. The ‘if’ is often interpreted as ‘if and only if’. When more antecedents are added, then the fallacies are suppressed. This is called the suppression effect.

Braine argued that people have mental logic rules that they can apply to solving reasoning problems. He argued that people have a set of mental inference rules or schemas that permit direct inferences. They include the modus ponens, but not the modus tollens.

The mental models approach is the view that people tackle logical reasoning problems by forming mental representations of possible states of the world and draw inferences from those representations. Mental models are used for reasoning and the more mental models reasoning requires, the more difficult it will get for people. People minimise the load on the working memory by tending to construct mental models that represent explicitly only what is true and not what is not true. This can cause people to draw the wrong conclusion when they have to answer questions about things that are implicitly not true according to the premises. The principle of truth leads people to form models in which

Emotion refers to a number of mental states that are relatively short-lived and are associated with an eliciting event. There are four key features of emotions:

1. Emotions are bounded episodes elicited when an event occurs that is of relevance to the organism’s needs, goals or well-being.
2. Emotions prepare the organism to act so as to deal with an event.
3. Emotions affect most or all bodily systems.
4. Emotions establish control precedence over behaviour.

Emotions provide us with essential feedback on the execution of our plans relative to our goals. Emotions have not been studied a lot, because it was first seen as irrational and it is difficult to study. The amygdala (fear), the orbitofrontal cortex (anger) and the cingulate cortex (sadness) are involved in emotions. The insula has been linked to disgust. The default network is a network of brain regions that is active when the person is not focused on the external environment. The salience network is involved in monitoring the external and internal environment to allow detection of salient stimuli.

Emotions are to some extent culture-dependent. Display rules are social conventions governing how, when and with whom emotions may be expressed in society. There are core emotions that are universal. The core emotions are anger, disgust, fear, happiness and sadness. Emotional leakage refers to the unintended expression of emotion or a failure to mask emotion. Masked emotions are associated with more inconsistent expressions and an increased blink rate. The emotional responses someone has when depressed is culturally determined, as being depressed also means not being able to regulate the emotional expression in line with the cultural norms.

Clore and Ortony propose that human emotions are characterized by four components:

1. Cognitive
   Mentally register the significance of the emotion. Appraisal refers to the ways in which people interpret or explain to themselves the meaning of events.
2. Motivational-behavioural
   Our actions in response to the emotion.
3. Somatic
   This involves the autonomic nervous system, which regulates internal organs and the central nervous system, which consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The characteristic of the somatic part of emotion is the physiological responses that occur along with emotion.
4. Subjective-experiential
   This involves the personal experience of the emotion.

There are several theories on the relationship between emotion and cognition. There are two early theories of emotion and cognition:

1. James-Lange theory
   This theory holds that the experience of emotion follows the physiological changes associated with that state. An emotion arises from bodily feedback. Emotion is the perception of bodily changes. The facial feedback hypothesis proposes that feedback from the facial muscles can influence emotional state.
2. Cannon-Bard theory
   This theory holds that the emotional experience and the physiological changes arise concurrently from the stimulus events. The two events are independent.

The catharsis myth is the mistaken idea that aggressive behaviour is an effective means of