Boeksamenvatting bij Skill Sheets. An integrated Approach to Research, Study and Management - Tulder

Core skills - Challenges: the need for integrating skill development - Chapter 0

Integration of world communities induces the creation of international bargaining society.

General Characteristics

• Increasing knowledge accessibility due to internet.

• Open community as exemplify by Wiki-phenomenon.

• Power vacuum that produces and international void.

• Lack of thorough and deep knowledge creation

Principles

Absolute quality is becoming less relevant

• Benchmarking and rankings are used to distinguish best practices.

• ‘Peer Review’ acts as regulatory mechanism.

• Constant struggle between moving toward openness and creating a closed community of peer.

• Ideas and products are increasingly sold or provided through the use of mathematics

• There is a challenge to create a high quality and relevant knowledge that based on peer review and benchmarking.

Dynamics

• Timing issue becomes the outmost important.

• Pseudo-intellectualism: a sign of intellectual sloppiness which exemplifies by superficial judgement.

• The bargaining society also gives rise to higher level of negativity.

• All those create society with high level of opportunism among the individuals.

• Seeking second opinion becomes the trend where more and more people do so for various reasons.

Outcome

Risk society: risks are manufactured and much more the result of human activity than in the past. Risk distribution tends to be unequal due to inequality of information accessibility.

Hyperkinetic Society: fast thinking is much more valued than deep thinking. This causes serious attention deficits.

Bargaining society: promotes the use of brain in the ‘survival’ mode and this creates a calculating person.

1. Entering a Calculating Learning Environment

The academic world has become part of the bargaining society as well. People in this society play different roles and they do so in calculating manner. For example, Students are trying to get the best grade with minimum effort while teachers are trying to create multiple-choice exams for easy marking. This may have a negative impact for the people live in this calculating society.

2. The University as a Positive Learning Environment

University can provide excellent preconditions for a continuous and virtuous learning process.

• Staff: usually committed and eager to help

• Librarians: helpful towards students that want to learn

• Free haven: university provides an opportunity to develop one intellectual capacity

• Peers: meeting place for people with various differences

• Standards: maintaining high standards as universities need to compete with one another.

Format: the skill circle

1. The Skill Circle

• ‘The skill highway’

  • Constitutes of 4 phases namely unaware incompetent, aware competent, aware competent and either aware incompetent or unaware competent.

  • Different phase comes from the learning process of the previous phase. And after one complete cycle one will move to another cycle of learning process.

• Input Oriented Skills

  • The first skills that have to be acquired in academia.

  • First is reading skills. These are the most effective way of acquiring knowledge.

  • Next is listening skills. These require communication skills that help promotes active interaction.

• Output Oriented Skills

  • Communicating the result of research and learning process.

  • First is written form. This is the most effective way of conveying the result

  • Second is oral presentation. Hard to reproduce but better feedback mechanism.

2. The Skill Circle as an Integrated Whole: Creating Linkages

Horizontal linkage: Reading and writing are linked through skill management skills. Listening and presentation are linked through team management skills. There has to be a balance between these skills to make it effective.

Vertical linkage: Reading and listening as skills need to be developed though generally one can only be good at either one of them. Creating a linkage between these input oriented skills and output oriented skills will increase competence in doing research.

3. Skill Development as Managing Circular Cycles

Learning cycle has certain order. The order is problem, problem definition, diagnosis to the design of a possible solution. Going through this cycle eventually will generate solution and evaluation. Nevertheless, people in the bargaining society are strongly inclined to go through the cycle in the different order. This may be problematic since learning process becomes stagnated.

The ambition level of the present approach for each skill and the way to obtain this:

• Lifelong Learning: aware of learning gap, make decision on the basis of different perspectives, act on it, continuous feedback.

• Effective Team and Project Management: forming appropriate team, brainstorm about the project, decide on norms, implementing, adjourning

• Active Reading: choice of source, selection of appropriate material, identification of structures and argumentations, note taking, evaluate usability

• Constructive Listening: the necessity of meeting, preparation of content, organisation of meeting, co-production of what is communicated, awareness of the effect of the listening process, evaluation

• Writing with Power: brainstorm of possible arguments, clear structure, formulating your argument, editing

• Effective Presentation: choose a topic, circumstance and audience, the type of content prepared, constructive shape, then become act of co-production, feedback

Weakest Links: again in the bargaining society, people tend to go through this the other way around. Also, there is tendency to undervalue two parts, problem definition and evaluation.

Goals of the Skill Sheets Collection

Five aims:

1. Quick Reference guide: as a guide to effective research

2. Selective: prime important skills

3. Identification of skill levels: make the user aware of the skill level he/she has and how to develop them.

4. Systematic and integrative: systematic way of attaining the necessary skills

5. Tutor Oriented: can be used by tutor for feedback

Core skills - Researching - How to go about criteria, research aims, and research steps? - Chapter 1

1. Principles of Good Research

Good research selects the most appropriate theories and method for the problem at hand.

8 basic rules of good research:

1. Dare to build upon the research of others: science is intended to be cumulative therefore build upon previous researches can be a good start

2. Dare to make motivated choices: choice of methodologies, approaches, etc. force researchers to choose. Then, these choices need to be revealed so as to make the research reproducible.

3. Always define the most important concepts: words and concepts need to be defined properly to clarify meaning

4. Explain flaws in the research yourself: acknowledge flaws in the research so that people will not undermine the credibility of the research

5. Make a clear distinction between analytical and normative judgement: conclusion can only be made on the result of the research and not base on limited description on empirical phenomena.

6. Strive for the highest possible integrity: adopts high level of integrity when using other people data and takes into account possible manipulation of the data.

7. Be critical and creative: be brave in critically examined the research.

8. Good research is disciplined and realistic: to establish a good research one needs to work hard.

2. Research Aims: Basic or Applied?

Aims of Basic Research:

• Problem definition: deals with the nature of the problem

• Diagnosis: analyse problem and its causes

Aims of Applied Research:

• Design: giving advice

• Implementation: active intervention, action research

• Evaluation: more than just active intervention. Also includes revision of design.

Tension between description and prescription

The right customer may be one opening way to good research. Nevertheless, a good researcher should know the conflicting interest between clients and researchers.

3. Personal Research Aims/Ambitions

Researcher does not need to follow all steps. Sometimes there are division of labour.

Cycle of 1. Problem, 2. Problem definition, 3. Diagnosis, 4. Design/Outcome, 5. Implementation, 6. Evaluation can be follow in various ways.

There are different kind of researchers namely Conceptualiser, Diagnost, Designer, Implementer, Involved Evaluator.

4. Creativity in Research

When no theoretical frameworks available as basis of research, problem formulation usually needs an intentional divergent phase. This phase stimulates divergent thinking similar to brainstorming. Thereafter, convergent phase follows. There are some techniques to enhance divergent thinking: Blue Sky Thinking, Distortion and Negation, Mind Mapping, Brainwriting, etc.

5. Steps in Research Projects

Research is difficult to manage. There is continuous tension between problem and problem definition over time. Then, there is limited time. Third, personal research aims and capabilities change in course of time. Research steps can be followed. There are 16 steps that can be divided into 2 phases.

Phases A: Preparation (Step 1-9)

Plan the time for reflection, incremental development and conceptual specification. Each step takes different timing. Overall this takes about 50%.

Phase B: Implementation (Step 10-16)

After phase A there are two more steps, Data collection and Finalisation. Data collection takes 40% and Finalisation 10%.

Research Steps:

1. Needs: specify your needs/problems

2. Aim: specify research aims

3. Time: time availability

4. Feasibility: make feasibility study and planned methodology

5. Question: develop a logical sequence of research questions

6. Linkages: link each question to preferred method. Write a rough introduction

7. Labour Division: create division of labour

8. Budgets: Specify time, page, social, financial, energy budgets

9. Theory: finish the conceptual part

10. Data: data collection

11. Analysis: write down the results of your empirical search

12. Conclusion: repeat research question, draw conclusion

13. Summary: executive summary

14. Preface: write preface and introduction

15. Layout: Finalise the layout of your report

16. Letter: send a well written letter to person/organisation who commissioned the research project.

6. Feasibility Study

Conducted before the formulation of research question

Without feasibility study, research can fail due to the following:

• Failed answers: no answer to the original question

• Failed questions: no empirical data for the chosen research question

• Failed time frame: exceeds the time of completion

• Failed skill assessment: unawareness of skills necessary for the research

• Failed ambitions: possibility of free-ride behaviour

The importance of feasibility study is to reveal the kind of resource available and how difficult it is to use them.

Three main categories of resources to consider in feasibility study:

1. Personal resources

Specifying: how much time available, experience about the topic, social, financial resource and your personal ambition regarding the research

2. Secondary resources

What kind of literature available on the topic

Find: list of keywords and synonyms, use snowball method, use reversed snowball method through Science Citation Indexes, Bibliography available, Meta-study, make use of reference books

3. Primary resources

Use your own observation through participation in an organisation and direct interaction

Make use of interview and/or questionnaires

7. Research Strategies

Research aims at describing and explaining.

Dimensions of Research Strategies

• Theoretical- empirical: good theory should help you explain and understand better. On the other hand, a more sophisticated explanation helps in building new theories.

• Positivist- Subjectivist: positivist aims to develop more or less objective knowledge. On the contrary, subjectivist acknowledges at more unique character of social phenomena.

• Explorative – Conclusive: explorative strategy is often used when there is uncertainty on the nature of your research object. It is usually base on the grounded theory. This explorative research is primarily qualitative and inductive in nature. Conclusive research is used when there is more certainty. It is more deductive and quantitative side of research.

• Pure- Applied: Pure research focuses more on theoretical challenges of a particular intellectual area. It aims at further elaborating concepts and building more sophisticated. Applied research on the other hand focuses on more practical challenges of actors

Synthesis: Triangulation

Triangulation specifies this strategy by searching for multiple methods to obtain data, sampling data, places and people, multiple observers and different theories.

The decision whether you can make use of statistical techniques as part of research strategy depends on the following considerations:

1. Identification of variables: distinguish between dependent and independent variables.

2. The nature of variables: discrete and continuous. Discrete can be nominal and ordinal while continuous can be interval or ratio scale.

3. The existence and nature of the control variables: the more control variables you are able to include in your model, the more sophisticated it becomes.

8. Choosing Appropriate Methods

There are 5 most commonly used methods:

1. Experiments: often used to detect causal relationship between variables. Advantage of experiment is that it is a good way of showing the existence of causal relationships but the external validity of the result is generally low.

2. Survey: giving structured questionnaires to a sample of a population. This can be done by verbal, written and internet base survey. Advantage: no involvement of researcher and respondent and easy to check internal validity of the survey. Use of statistical analysis can increase the external validity. Disadvantages: questions often remain multi-interpretable and lack of depth.

3. Case studies: appropriate to gain insights into real-life events. The advantage is more in-depth knowledge on a particular organisation. Disadvantage: loss of external validity

4. Desk research: this type is used when it is easy to obtain the information from internet or library. Advantage: no time restriction since it does not involve external respondent. Disadvantage: the reliability of the information is low. Fortunately, more and more people using this method use it in certain guaranteed quality.Some examples: Hear both sides for journalist, check and double check, etc.

5. In-depth interviews: it is comparable to those of the case study method. The advantage comes from the fact that it can be used to check the solidity of the research. Interviewing a few experts can also validate the research (Delphi method). Pilot interview can help rephrase a questionnaire and in-depth interview can give vital information. Disadvantage: take substantially large amount of time.

9. Choosing Appropriate Questions

Start a research with a clear question is important. There are 6 suggestions to ensure that the question pick is the appropriate one.

1. Begin with the more qualitative research question

2. Take the research time frame into account

3. Be critical and creative in creating the question

4. Compile a list of keywords

5. Decide the value of the research

6. What is the interesting question that can attract the reader

10. Formulating the Research Question

Need not be one sentence. Differentiate between creating question or hypothesis

Formulating a question or a hypothesis

Question usually invites general answer while hypothesis is more restrictive

• Avoid using general and descriptive questions and hypotheses, i.e be specific

• Reduce complexity in your research project

• If you have more knowledge then hypothesis can be made straight away

• Hypotheses can also be used to get to easier falsification. Falsification is a principle of appropriate research which is applied particularly in natural science

The function of a question hierarchy

Use shorter sentences and specify your research topic in your research question.

Question hierarchy:

• General to specific

• Theoretical to empirical questions

• Secondary sources to primary data

11. Organising Files

Creating a file from the start is needed.

Principle 1: Categorise

Categorise the file according to general interest. Begin with it is helpful to organise your files into three reference areas:

1. Topic: collect according to the topic that you read in any reading materials

2. Actors: organise according to the company or business area

3. Countries: organise countries that of interest

Principle 2: Be Selective

Be selective when deciding what to include. Collect and store only those source that are difficult to find in libraries.

It is good to have the following sources available:

• Copies of articles: take notes of the source and date of publication

• Chapters of books: take note whenever it is important

• Original sources: white papers, transcripts of speeches

Principal 3: Register bigger sources separately

Create a paper or electronic index cards that contain full bibliographical information

Principal 4: Process the information in time

File those that have been read. Reasons: 1. if you have read, you know what it is, 2. Some sources are not relevant, 3. Make note on the source, 4. Easier to file it accordingly.

12. Barter in Research

It is usually hard to get people to devote time to provide input for the research. And since it is unlikely to give monetary reward, more and more researchers use barter.

Below some of the rules:

• Fairness: fair terms of trade

• Stakes: specifying what is at stake by sending them a letter with short description of the research

• Time: make clear of the amount of time needed

• Return: make clear about what is the return for providing the input. The minimum return is sending the end result

• Abstain from: posing open-ended questions that shows your lack of knowledge about the topic.

13. Online Databases

The rise of internet has made it easier to search for material through databases.

Strengths of databases

• Multi-topic search is easier

• Forces researcher to think through the research question before starting a particular quest

• Complements library sources

• Easily retraceable and updated

• Possibility to search using keywords

Weaknesses of databases

• Few public and reliable databases available

• Sophisticated databases are expensive

• Bias for English language source

• No inexpensive text available

• Producers have a vested interest in maintaining traditional divisions in disciplines

• Complex protocols and procedures

• Possibility for browsing are more limited

• Delay

Characteristics

• Level of knowledge: there is continuum ranging from applied to theoretical

• Restrictions: strategic reasons to delay ( between 2 months to 2 years)

• Archive databases: contain current information only

• Quality characteristics of articles and journals: scientific value of articles can be measured by the status of the journal

Steps in research projects and appropriate databases

1. Step 1: orientation: first phase is to use existing literature. Google can be useful during this stage

2. Step 2: Define Qualitative Keywords: Qualitative online databases offer the possibility to identify whether a research project is relevant or feasible. Consult as many databases as possible

3. Step 3: Define Qualitative Challenges: if sufficiently reliable and proficient data exist on a topic, it can be included in the research

14. Search Engines: Googling Around

General concept of a search engine

• The spider: program that searches through the internet, downloads the pages it find and follow the links on the pages

• The database: websites are found, stored in the database

• The user-interface: search through this database to find relevant websites

Steps in the search process

Know what you want

Do the right search

Narrow down your search

Search results

Google ranks the result base on relevance and importance. There are hundred different factors that determine the relevance of websites. Be aware of possible bias

Critical use of search engines

Issue of reliability is very important one. Take the following things into account when using a search engine:

• Search for more than one source

• Be aware that many links have a commercial objective

• Be aware that people can make their websites foolproof

• Google principle: large number of cross-links websites will be put on top

• Description line may not be representatives of the content

• Problem for multi-interpretable words

15. Internet or Internot?

Strenghts of internet

• Up to date

• Additional information

• Fast means of communication

• Easy way to get in contact with people/organization

• Contact is more informal

• Easy way to get information on a particular subject

• Easy access to other site

• No major barriers to entry

• Give good insight into the way organisations present themselves

• Cheap

• Environmentally-friendly

Weaknesses

• Overdose of information

• Chaotic and unsystematic

• Finding relevant information may be complicated

• May not be up to date

• Relevance is unclear

• Reliability can be doubtful

• Bias

• English dominance

What can be done to check the reliability of an internet source?

• Check the website name and reputation

• Check the publisher’s name

• Check suffix of an URL

• Check when it is up-dated

• Check several other sources

• Check the number of visitors

• Check with librarians

• Consult peers

• Make references of internet sources

• Double check

16. Validation and Verification as Barter

Validation is the process of checking the reliability of something.

Verification is the process of checking whether a specific statement has sufficient predictive or explanatory value.

Tips to improve research output:

1. Create a pool or network of informants

Ability to seek the appropriate advice from those who are better informed

Example: let lawyer check legal wording

Do not send a preliminary draft

Do not hesitate to call adviser

Compile list of people to whom you have sent material

Create a separate file for correspondence

2. Check the way you present your information

Have the paper checked by native speaker

Let some peers proofread the manuscript

For oral presentation, ask someone to listen to it.

Core skills - Study and managing of self - What are the basic principles for a continuous learning cycle? - Chapter 2

1. Principles of Virtuous/Lifelong Learning

The most important yardstick for measuring your performance in self-management and study skills is their effect on the other skills in the skill circle. The challenge of lifelong learning is continuously trigger cycles of generative learning and this requires:

• Problem definition: try to become aware of your learning gap by identifying the difference between where you are and where you want to be

• Diagnosis and design: define the skills that you want to develop and set realistic goals. Write learning contract and learning updates on regular basis.

• Implementation: translate goals into actions. Plan your action weekly and per semester

• Evaluation: feedback at different stages

5 basic principles that need to be taken into account:

1. Assume responsibility for your own learning

The following dimensions are relevant:

• The importance of motivation: be motivated in what you do. With clear intrinsic motivation the activity becomes much more laborious

• The need for an active attitude: adopt an active and continuous learning attitude

• Awareness of automatisms: you should be aware of the action that is result of past experiences

• The challenges of the hyperkinetic society: the large multitude of information increases the risk of superficial and chaotic thinking. This creates a so called hyperkinetic society.

• Plan backwards: define your schedule by the end goal. After knowing the deadline of the end result works backwards to divide the task on smaller activities

• Learning reports: analyse progress in the development of skills and organise feedback session

2. Be active and intra-preneurial

Try to invest your prime time each semester in:

• Classes: the priority?

• Writing activities: written products that you work most on?

• Management activities: be active as an assistant for example

• Literature: publications and books

• Journals and magazines: which ones do you want to read?

• Teachers: teacher that is important for feedback

• Organisations and topics: organise your files accordingly

Base your choice of classes for each semester on:

• Class size: choose at least one class that has a small number of participants as it will stimulates class involvement, increase the time spent in course work and increase satisfaction

• Level: try to gain experience in advance work of specific field

• Language: take classes taught in foreign language

Create a writing portfolio: write regularly to gain inertia

3. Dare to put yourself in the discomfort zone

Be aware of your incompetencies. Your learning is influenced by your willingness to bring yourself into discomfort zone. The reward of studying is correlated with your effort.

4. Create your own learning environment: participate in extra-curricular activities

Two activities that are relevant for learning:

1. Create small groups: you learn better in small group. In terms of self-learning the payoff is enthusiasm and the pursuit of topics to a more advanced level. Group work boost creativity and encourage hard-working

2. Engage in extra-curricular activities: get involve in extra-curricular activities increase your satisfaction level

5. Generate as much relevant feedback as possible

Feedback is necessary to learn.

2. Self-diagnosis: Attitude

This part helps you to identify your attitude

1. Individual attitude: the dependent and independent learner

Dependent learner

• Structured learning experiences

• Tutor takes responsibility for learning, tutor-centred approach

• Rewards, support

• Intellectual stimulation from studies

• Reinforcement

Independent learner

• Complex problems for which there is no single correct solution

• Extensive self-paced, independent study

• Student-centred approach

• Encouragement

• Judgement-free support

• Experimentation

• Free to explore and make mistakes

2. Group attitude: ‘I’ or ‘Other’

‘I’ oriented person

• Takes own ideas as a point of reference

• Like to criticise others

• Talks and interrupts frequently in group

• Problems with detailed and concise elaboration

‘Other’ oriented person

• Takes opinions of others

• Likes to absorb and accumulate knowledge

• Is a good listener

• Often chooses one approach in group processes

Generally, most group comprises of both types of people. It is important to understand the possible functionality of each attitude for group work

3. Change process: creating an individual synthesis?

To characterise behavioural synthesis, distinction by attitude is done as follows: submissive, aggressive, and assertive behaviour.

The assertive behaviour has clear advantages:

• Achievements and potential will be recognised earlier and probably rewarded

• A growing feeling of personal value will be developed

• Recognition of responsibility for your ideas

• Less energy and time is wasted trying to find out what other people are doing

3. What does the Teacher want?

Teachers often give assignments in order to stimulate you to digest information in particular manner. Some interpretations of the way to digest information

1. Understanding: interpretations

Read a text without stopping, able to sense intuitively the meaning of the text, follow what the author of a text means

2. Perception: interpretations

Able to identify the message per paragraph, able to reconstruct the implicit premises of the authors, capable of formulating comparable argumentation and identify fallacies in original argumentation

3. Critical: interpretations

Able to critically assess points of comparison, come up with balanced judgement, able to make explicit the implicit criticism of one author of another

4. Application: interpretations

Follow the steps, use a theory or model to generate questions about reality, investigate under what practical circumstances you can identify a theory or model

5. Exercise

Teacher tests the students through the use of different tests or exams. These different questions need to be interpreted accordingly.

4. Learning Report and Contract

Learning report is one of the main instruments for applying the principles of self-managed learning.

When drafting a learning report and contract there are five reflective questions need to be considered: where am I now?, what is my problem?, Where do I want to go?, How can I get there?, How do I want to test my progress?

Two yardsticks to measure performance:

1. An absolute yardstick of skill formation

2. A relative yardstick is when skill is compared with the one from the institutions

5. Study Strategies and Learning Styles

Studying is the art of individual learning in particular through reading or listening

1. The dynamic brain

Brain is dynamic as it follows the interaction with the environment. Right hemisphere focuses more on creative function while the left hemisphere is dedicated to more logical and analytical function.

2. Experience-based learning

The experience-based learning theory is an approach that links learning and study to various function of the brain. Learning presents a cycle that moves form concrete experience (CE), via reflective observation (RO), abstract conceptualisations (AC) to active testing and experimentation (AT).

3. Learning styles

• Diverging style: CE and RO dominant. Perform better in situations that call for generation of idea. Adopt an undirected learning style

• Assimilating style: AC and RO dominant. Good at understanding a large variety of information. Learning style is meaning-directed.

• Converging style: AC and AT dominant. Best at finding practical uses for ideas and theories. Solution-oriented. Learning style is reproduction-directed

• Accommodating style: CE and AT dominant. Learn from hands on experience. Style is application-directed.

6. Memory ad Mind Maps

There are distinction of short-term, medium term and long-term memory.

A. Short-term memory (STM)

STM is used when you read sentence and try to understand it. If the sentence is too complex, it will drain your energy

B. Medium-term memory (MTM)

Holds memory for 3 days. Using this for the exam will prove to be inadequate

C. Long-term memory (LTM)

Comparable to a library with 3 departments:

1. First department: shelved in the sequence in which they enter. No structure and catalogue.

2. Second department: categorised by topics but structured relatively loose.

3. Third department: topics are neatly organised into groups with available catalogue

There are several memorising techniques

1. Mind mapping: memorising through correct classifications and visualisation. Characteristic of mind map: central subject in the middle, branches connected to this central subject are the main themes, moving away from the middle the less important the information is, branches are identified by keywords

2. Skimming: summarise what is read and think of additional theories and applications about the subjects

3. SQ3R: technique of an active reading approach to store the information in the medium and long term memory. 5 steps: survey, question, read, recite and recall, and review.

4. Note-taking: linear note-taking focuses on quotes, summary and outline. Outlines can also be drawn as a pattern.

7. Concentration

Two factors that affect concentration capability:

1. Physical factors

• Shift during the day: choose the most appropriate time when you can concentrate for the most demanding task

• Stimulants: coffee, alcohol, nicotine: different stimulants have effects for concentration.

• Time, topic and performance: there is correlation between time and concentration level. After certain time, performance will drop significantly. The time is affected by difficulty of text, background knowledge, structure of the text and experience. Break is needed in between doing difficult tasks.

2. Mental factors

• The problems of others: personal problems and worries may distract you from concentrating and cause escape behaviour.

• Your own problems: create small group to make studying better.

8. Good Time Management

Three general principles:

1. Identify your most important ‘time wasters’

Time wasters are related and are often cumulative. Take note of the time wasters

2. Identify and work in modules

Works in modules as this will create a time focus, make use of memory capacity, create a feeling of satisfaction, allow measurement of progress and enable better planning.

4 types of modules:

1. Simple/small: define your module in hours

2. More complex: Writing - define in terms of 1 day

3. More complex: Writing and searching - when research is needed define the task for 2-3 days

4. Complex: Research - define into functional activities and plan modules per week.

3. Avoid distractions: cope with excuses

Excuses

• Doubt that you have included all topics

• Doubt about the originality of argument

• Possibility of less interesting research topic

• Make excuses base on past experience

Practical tips: a checklist

• # Do it now: concentrate on the task at hand and this makes you save time in dealing with the task later.

• # Clean up your desk: disorganised desks create time problems and additional stress

• # Do the most important task during your most productive hours

• # Use your diary smartly: prioritise your activities well

• # Separate private from work: create clear distinction between work and private life.

9. Procrastination

Definition: the avoidance of doing a task that needs to be accomplished.

Procrastination process: 1. Want to start, 2. Delay, 3. Becoming self-critical, 4. Delay up until you can barely finish it, 5. Think of not repeating, 6. Go through the cycle again.

Why do student procrastinate?

Poor time management, difficulty concentrating, finding the task boring, personal problems, fear and anxiety, negative beliefs, unrealistic expectation and fear of failure.

Exercise to discover your procrastination

Keep a diary of what you have really done, write done what you have done in every half-hour, re-read your diary after one week, and start analysing.

To evade procrastination you can use SMART method = Specific and simple, Meaningful and measurable, As if now and Achievable, Realistic and Responsible, Timed.

Exercise in preventing a lack of time for important assignments

Write six most important task of the day and start from the most important one to the least important one.

10. Study Planning: Week

Advantages of week planning:

Aware of the amount of time available, create an excuse for unplanned activities.

1. Schedule your week

Make a schedule, write down all activities including the travel time and schedule all classes that you want to attend

2. Identify modules

Every three days schedule time for class preparation and doing assignments, leave time for sports, use breaks not for activities that use your brain again, create some time for reserves, distribute the material that you have in that period

3. Specify rewards

Create positive stimuli for keeping the schedule by creating reward. But rewards need to be flexible. Distinguish between private and study activities.

11. Study Planning: Semester

3 reasons for semester planning:

Prevents accumulation of activities at the wrong time, enables you to include feedback sessions at the right time

1. Identify your portfolio of major activities

List all of the courses that you plan to attend in the semester and assign priority ranking. List the extra activities and add a list of private life activities

2. Plan your time in steps

Plan backwards from the deadlines.

Consequences of exam deadlines:

• One week before the exam you should have finished reading the materials

• Acquire all the material as soon as possible at the start of the semester

Consequences of papers and essays deadlines:

• Try to finish the paper a few days before hand-in date

• Make general calculation of the amount of time for feedback and other things

Consequences of deadlines for self-study groups and extra-curricular activities:

• Set intermediate deadline for these activities

3. Carry out check

Check your progress every 2 weeks to know what necessary changes are needed.

12. Health and Energy Balance

Healthy lifestyle is important for good performance

1. Sustaining healthy habits

Unhealthy habits are as follows: undertaking too many activities at the same time, with not enough commitment which lead to underperformance which lessen self-esteem and lack of motivation to perform well in these activities and substitute it with a more superficial activities.

Principles of good Energy Management:

• Watch what you eat

• Exercise at least 30 minutes a day

• Take multivitamin

• Moderate intake of alcohol

• Get adequate sleep: stop eating 2 hours before sleep, don’t drink before sleep, don’t sleep during the day, create regular sleeping time, sleep in good mattress, etc.

2. Sustaining a healthy working environment

Take note of possible Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI). Caused of RSI: Sitting at the same time for too long, repeated movements, high concentration, lack of balance between works and study.

13. Generating/Receiving Feedback

Generating feedback

• Agree on the way to receive feedback

• Understand the hard work to give feedback

• Do not leave the weak point for reader

• Always include the status of the paper and the kind of feedback desired

• Hand in previous version of the paper

• Use a marker to note the last changes

• Make back up copy

• Do not use tutor as language editor

Receiving feedback

• When receiving feedback it is dysfunctional to argue back

• Consider feedback as a chance to learn

• Do not defend yourself and do not interrupt the feedback giver

• Ask for clarification if you do not understand

• Thank the feedback giver.

14. Learning Contract 2: Peer Feedback

Peer feedback can often be more useful than feedback from more experienced person. Seven dimensions:

Starting position

1. Detailed and relevant explanation of past experience

Diagnosis

2. Balanced assessment of strengths and weaknesses

3. Good and systematic elaboration

4. Writing style

Implementation/future

5. Realistic implementation: reasonability of timeframe

Social

6. Implementation conditions: person that can help

Consistent

7. Consistent implementation which combined strengths and weaknesses and generated solution.

Core skills - Reading - What are the requirements for active reading? - Chapter 3

1. Principles of Active Reading

Active reading is accompanied by writing.

Effective reading is selective, think: understand the background of the sources, Analyse: identify the argumentation structure, effective reading is active, master different reading techniques, master intelligent note-making, effective reading is input for social activities

1. Source choice and selection

Ability to keep track of relevant reading materials and select the most appropriate materials is important. Understanding the methodology of gathering information by different relevant journals is also needed.

2. Identify structures

It is necessary to identify relevant parts as not the whole text is needed. A good insight into the structure of the book or the nature of an article, can shorten the reading time.

3. Combine techniques of reading and writing

Processing the information while reading is the effective way of reading. Active digestion of information is necessary.

4. Reading as a social activity

Reading in combination with other group experiences becomes even more effective.

2.1 Book Selection: Authors

This part helps to decide whether to use the books or not.

1. Monographs

Definition: an original scholarly text usually on a single topic.

Questions to consider: authors academic status, whether the book s a joint effort or one dominant author is prevalent

2. Textbooks and readers

Textbooks are written for educational purposes and are intended to provide the reader with a solid overview of the state-of-affairs in a particular area.

Check: status whether the author of the textbook is also leading author and institutional background of the author

3. Edited volumes

Edited volumes are also usually monographs intended to bring the intelligence of a number of scholars on a specific topic together.

Questions: how the editors announce themselves, what do you know about the status of the editors and the authors, how user-friendly the book is.

4. Endorsements

Endorsements are used by the publishers as a marketing tool for the book which often includes quotes from people who recommend the book.

Aspects: contents of the book, status of the endorsers, history of the book, author’s networks and audience that the book is aimed.

5. Colophons

Colophons and copyright provisions can offer interesting additional information on the background of the author’s.

2.2 Book Selection: Contents

Selecting books should be done by considering the background of the publisher and the reason for publication.

1. The publisher and the publication

• Reputation of the publishing house

• Portfolio of the publisher

• Price

• Paperback, hardback or both

• Additional editions

• Package deal

2. The book’s contents

• Define the status of the book as monograph, textbook and edited volume

• Look at titles and the table contents

• Get an impression of the kind of sources that the book is based on, example: more secondary sources used, mainly reinterpretation and theory building

• Get an idea of the reliability of the sources: if limited sources are used, the sources are not revealed or inconsistency in referencing.

• Find the originality and reliability if the tables and figures

• How well develop is the index

• Bibliography

• Skim the opening and conclusion.

3. Newspapers and Magazines

Background knowledge about newspapers and magazines that we want to use as a source is needed to know the credibility of the source.

Understanding the editorial policy

It is necessary to understand the editorial policy of a magazine or journal. Editorial policy relates to what audience the journal wants to reach and by what kind of news coverage. If possible also check for style guide.

1. Sources of information and the focus of the magazine

Deciding factor for defining the quality of a journal and newspaper is where it gets its information from. Some gets the information from press agencies and different press agencies focuses on different regions

2. Additional criteria for assessing the reliability of a newspaper

Questions to consider to check the reliability of source:

How does the newspaper deal with rectification, who write guest columns and what is the nature of the editorial?

3. Referee procedures in scientific magazines

In general the stricter the magazine’s selection criteria, the more reliable it is as a source. Nevertheless, lower ranking scientific magazine can also be of a value.

4. Large Amounts of Material

Reading can serve a variety of purposes at the same time, which leads to different ways of assimilating the material.

Specify the aim of your search

Link aim of reading with appropriate manner for digesting. For example: read broadly can help to gain insight.

Prepare structure of your argument: read after you write a preliminary draft of the overall content of your paper.

Decide upon the style of your search

Start with the most promising pieces: read only part or text that is most relevant to the research topic

Do not lose time by reading text from beginning to end: skim the text to find the most interesting part. Start reading and mark the section carefully.

Create favourable conditions

Avoid distraction: avoid piling all reading material together but instead arrange it properly and concentrate only on the reading material that you need.

Use simple techniques

Make notes on post cards: use this card to write summary of idea and details of the reading materials.

Organise the cards to follow your argument: arrange the card according to the way you want to write the text.

Create a clear focus

Allocate a ‘page budget’ before beginning to write----)allocate the total page for each heading and subheading.

Do not leave the writing to the end----)use prime idea to write and the rest as the addition.

5. Identifying Argumentation

Identifying argument is important though sometimes it is complex.

Six dyadic pairs of argumentation

1. Description: deals with question ‘what is’

Prescription: deals with the question ‘what should be’

Many texts combine these two. Though mixing can result in unconvincing argument

2. Induction: a number of observations to generate general conclusion

Deduction: general observation is used to generate conclusion

Inductive is common in statistical research while deductive is more macro-oriented

3. Causes: ‘why’ particular phenomena appear

Consequences: ‘what’ is the outcome of a particular observation

Causal relationship generates two conclusions, anticipation of a consequence and reconstruction of a cause.

4. Analogies: resemblance between what is observed and other observation

Metaphors: relate an observation from a known phenomenon

Use of both for arguing can never be proven. Prime function of these two is to find additional observations and questions which may bring fresh insight into the topic

5. In favour: supporting arguments

Against: counter arguments

Balancing arguments is important to make the paper more convincing

6. Necessary conditions: Y is needed for an outcome x

Sufficient conditions: if y is favourable x will appear

First look at necessary conditions and then consider the sufficient.

6. Organisation of the Argument

Before close reading: identify the organisation of the text

Structure of good analytical writing is predictable. The structure is hierarchical or pyramidal. Central theme is often included in subtitle, supporting themes make up the chapters and sections, detailed argumentation is in paragraph. Author may also use subheadings, sign words, etc. to make it clearer. Then the conclusions are used to wrap up.

After preliminary reading

If you cannot find the structure, it may be advisable to abandon the text. You may want to ask other if you cannot clearly identify the argumentations.

After thorough reading: overall assessment

Use checklist to come to a balanced overall assessment of an author’s argumentation. The criteria are clarity, succinctness, simplicity and precision.

7. Fallacies in Argumentation

There are various types of fallacies in argumentation. Some of them are as follow:

• Mix of prescription with description: author tends to be too eager to give advice.

• Reversible causalities: presenting causalities based on time

• Improper induction: usually the author is emotionally involved

• Improper deduction: inferior reasoning and the author tries to manipulate the reader.

• Reason by improper analogy

• Rationalisation: unsystematic development of research methodology and argumentation.

8. Translation Programmes

Between simple word replacement and translation programmes

Automatic translation is useful in:

• Giving a rough idea of what the text is about

• Serving as a basis for human translator

• Extra checking for clarity and grammatical correctness of the text

Tips for using translation programmes effectively

• Separate text into small short pieces of text

• Use normal language

• Say things directly, write short and simple sentences

• Write words and phrases in full form

• Use words that have specific meaning

• Make sure ambiguous words have suitable contexts

• Use spellchecker and check your grammar

• Avoid special characters or symbols

9. Active Note-making

Underlining

Do not underline everything

Only underline once you have read the whole paragraph

Use marker if desired

Use the margins

Indicate the number of arguments

Write question mark in the margin if you do not understand

Write an exclamation mark in the margin if the part is relevant

Get used to write in code

Marked by vertical line together with name when that part is useful for others

Other remarks can also be written in the margins.

Use small cards

Write down important quotes and ideas into cards

Make active summaries in the form of a table

Summarise part that is necessary. This helps to identify the most important characteristics of the analysis.

Make active summaries in the form of a diagrams and mind maps

• Identify the key concepts

• Find the relationship between these concepts

• Make graphical representation: draw hierarchy of key concepts, make distinction between independent and dependent variables, print important key concepts bold, draw clear and one directional arrow between variables.

• Be prepared to redraw diagram several time

• Make 2 diagrams: one mirror what is in the text and the other leaves the concepts in the same spot

10. Speed Reading

Reading skill is important and one of them is speed reading

1. Slow and quick reading

Many people are able to read around two times faster than the average. Slow reading makes comprehension

2. Technical causes of a slow reading

Cause of slow reading:

• We reread words

• We tend to read everything the same way

• We fail to become involved with the material being read.

• Recovery line between one line and another is slow

• We sub focalise

• We read every words

• Other factors that slow done reading (intelligent, lack of vocabulary,etc.)

3. Effective speed reading

It is important to have a conducive environment for reading.

Some of do’s and don’ts:

Do’s: Force yourself continuously, set reasonable goals, relax your eyes

Don’ts: do not ‘mouth’ the words, do not pay attention to every word

Some tips to fast read: move your eyes diagonally or read the words at the beginning and at the end of each line

11. Evaluation: Correction Symbols

Two types of correction:

1. Passive corrections are used to indicate which phrases are unclear/wrong

2. Active correction are used when the reader takes time to think of concrete alternative.

There are two types of symbols used by proofreaders. The first one is official standard ISO 5776:1983. However, each tutor may develop own symbols.

Core skills - Listening - What are the requirements for constructive listening? - Chapter 4

1. Principles of Constructive Listening

• Always prepare

• Really listen and do not judge

• Beware of your co-producer status

• Time your questions well

• Show empathy, concentration and interest

• Listening and note-taking

• Non-verbal expression is important

• Be prepared to give feedback

• Digest information immediately

1. The preconditions for constructive listening

People are capable listening at faster rate than speaking. Nevertheless concentration only last a few minutes. The first principle of constructive communication therefore is that you are aware of the importance of listening and start creating the precondition for effective listening.

2. Listening as Co-production

Two ways for co-production of the spoken word and reductive listening: 1. By asking questions at the right time and 2. Body language presented.

Few listeners are aware of their co-producer status. Constructive listening skills are the building blocks for effective communication.

3. Listening as a technique: Balancing listening and writing

Constructive listening skills require substantial practical experience in efficiently registering the information. For interview, the proportion of listening and writing should be right to ensure effectiveness.

2. Preparing interviews

Stages of functionality in interviews

Interview needs to be carried out at the right time so as to have the most impact on the research.

• During the design phase: find out whether people do such question or not, develop new ideas, try to find further reading, look for sponsorship.

• As you carry out research: get the information that is required, find out people that can give precise answer to the question

• After writing the report: check the way that you have presented the information.

Specific preparation: setting the scene

• Background: respondent position in the organisation and why this person is important to the research

• Objectives: write your objectives in short statement and state also personal biases and expectation. Moreover, think about how to establish a barter system for the interview

• Impression: impression counts when you want to obtain certain information.

• Introduction: prepare a well structured introduction to introduce the research to the interviewee

• Interviewers: limit the number of people interviewing and divide task to prevent conflicting questions from each other.

• Contact: contact the person and state the aim of research and the reason for interviewing.

Specific preparation on content

Work on the ability to take note while interviewing

• No tape recorder

• Prepare a checklist of questions

3. Managing interview

At the start of the interview

Create a positive atmosphere. Briefly outline the aim of interview through the 5 W: Who are you, Why are you here, What are you going to do with the information, How are you going to conduct the interview, and when will the interview be over.

During the interview

• First observation: write down the interviewee’s name and time of the interview. Take note of first impression

• Name interviewee: repeat the name of the person regularly to make the interviewee feel more at ease and open up better

• Listening process: Beware of reductive listening, try not to be judgemental and adopt an active listening posture

• Time management: know your priority and concentrate more on the more important questions. For longer interview, summarise the information regularly and ask the interviewee to clarify points that you have not understand it well.

• Questions interviewer: develop system for question that is not all hard question but rather sensible, do not be personal, do not interrupt and do not quote other interviewees.

• Answers interviewee: beware of evasion and vagueness and socially desirable answers

Before finishing the interview

• Go through the list of questions

• Ask for other information

• Present short summary of what have been discussed

• Tell the respondent of how the interview is going to be used

• Ask to come back to points that may not be clear

• Ask for any other people that might help you

• Thank the respondent

4. Asking questions

Question categories

• Open: invites elaborate answers but difficult to control

• Closed: guides the interviewee’s answers

• Suggestive/Leading/rhetorical: manipulative in nature, reliability of answers is questionable

• Socratic: effective to get the causes of a particular phenomena

• Confrontational/interrogative: lead to information that would otherwise not be revealed but may cause annoyance for the respondent

• Awareness-building: intended to introduce the respondent to new ideas and new insights

Questioning style: basic pointers

• Short and clear questions: avoid using multiple-interpretable questions

• Avoid the laundry list syndrome: leave room for improvisation to keep the interest of respondent

• Do not try to be too clever: the simpler it is the better

• Never overlook unclear or inadequate answers: try to clarify and make the respondent to be specific

• Avoid judgemental remarks: do not judge the interviewee, limits judgemental remarks from body language as well

• Preconditions for being critical: ask politely and make the respondent answers the question from different angle and different factors

• Pause for thought: wait to see whether respondent wants to expand the answer and repeat the answer with question mark

• Preparing next question: this should not be done while the respondent answers the question as it will distract your concentration

Should problems occur

Some example of problems that can occurs during interview are as follows:

• Respondent is not telling the truth: try to be patient and use more controlled question

• Respondent talks too much: remind the respondent to come back to the original points

• Respondent is hostile: show your understanding that the topic or occasion might be difficult and offer to proceed another time.

5. Body Language

Body Language is vital part of communication. It differs across culture.

Interpreting body language

• Face/head: be relax and eager

• Eyes: eye contact is important to engage listeners

• Voice: it supports and reinforces the message

• Hands: it can create distance from audience or shows insecurity

• Feet: uncoordinated moves of feet signals insecurity

• Clothing: represent personality

• Posture: it is important to convince listeners

Interpreting and manipulating gestures

Negative: when your gesture shows no interest in the subject it can have negative effects.

Positive: when people adopt the same gesture it represent positive attitude.

Interpreting and manipulating positions

Observe who takes the position at the head of the table, who waits until everyone is seated and so forth.

6. Processing Interviews

Make reproducible notes while listening

• Use codes in the margin indicating your own opinion

• Use quotation marks when respondent makes interesting remark

• Write commentary in your mother tongue

• Indicate immediately when remark is interesting or questionable

Conduct and process interviews in the language of the interviewee

If you conduct interview in foreign language try not to translate it as these can happen

• It will be far more difficult to grasp the meaning of what is said

• You do not have enough time to take in everything which is said

• You will never be sure that what you have written is actually what was said as the result of a translation error.

Quickly write a first account of the interview

• Go through the notes and write your first account

• Assign importance: underline or indicate which part that is important

• Identify your own commentary: go through the codes and add some other comment whenever appropriate

• List material received: make a list of material received from the respondent

• Formulate conclusions: write what you promised to do, other appointments and number of other conclusions that you would like to make instantly

• Specify your impressions: write immediate impression of the interview

Check for reductive listening after the interview

Before the interview analyse possible reasons for reductive listening and try to put it out of your mind during interview. Check it after the interview to ensure no other reason for reductive listening.

Be disciplined when writing up a sequence of interviewers

Never wait long before writing up your interview in a presentable, typed format

You will experience difficulty reading the note after a few days have passed

Several days, other impression may have mixed with the interview result

It gives the satisfaction of finishing the report

In principle, do not send your interview transcript to your respondent

If you send the transcript, the respondent might want to alter certain remark which causes some alteration. This is a waste of time

Send a thank-you note

Do not forget to write a thank-you note

Attending Lectures

Listening to a lecture always requires the willingness for the listener to be actively involved.

1. Prepare mentally

Prepare yourself as to what can be expected in this lecture. Concentrate on creating questions that you expect to be answered during the lecture.

2. Read in advance

Read the required literature in advance.

When you should consider not attending a lecture: have difficulty processing the information, you think lecturer is not able to communicate well, when lecturer merely reproduces a written text, etc.

3. Be actively involved

Make note and ask for the transparencies or slides.

4. Adopt an active listening posture

Sit closer to the lecturer to be more involved in the discussion. The way you sit has impact on the way you listen and indicates the level of interest to the lecturer

5. Ask questions

Ask questions to increase concentration level and show interest to the lecturer.

6. Always evaluate: the one- minute paper

Take one-minute note regarding what you have learned, what you did not like and what have you missed.

7. Listening to Feedback

Listening to give feedback

Constructive communication is owned. Listening provides feedback to your own presentation. You can use very detailed analysis scheme to figure out how to distinguish a clear opening, argument and conclusion.

Constructive listening to feedback of others

The following listening pointers:

• Keep calm and listen carefully, do not interrupt the person offering the feedback

• Always make notes and adopt listening posture

• Do not act defensively and concentrate on the words being said

• Summarise feedback and always welcome serious feedback

Listening to constructive group discussions on your writing

Organise a group session to discuss the writing. The writer needs to be patient

Listening to yourself

You may also want to hear your own opinion instead of relying only on the feedback of others.

Core skills - Writing - What are the requirements for powerful writing? - Chapter 5

1. Principles of Powerful Writing

Before you start writing you should have an idea of the output you are aiming for. Some rules of writing: 1. Think, 2. Powerful writing is rewriting, 3. Take sufficient time for brainstorming, 4. Be consistent, 5. Powerful writing requires managing different roles, 6. The occasion defines the most appropriate writing form, 7. Avoid plagiarism, 8. Reveal sources, 9. Easy reading is hard writing, 10. Contents and writing skills are complementary to each other.

1. Inventory (brainstorming)

You write anything that comes into your mind. The function of this phase is to provide space to write down everything about the problem.

2. Structure (norming)

It requires read and judge to have powerful writing. The more structured you have worked during the inventory phase the easier this phase. Minimum requirement of academic writing is mastering basic grammar with correct use and revelation of sources.

3. Formulation (performing)

Rewriting is important. It is necessary to do this to ensure quality report.

4. Editing

Editing requires separate state of mind. Editor check for three aspects: 1. Logic, 2. Readability, 3. Layout. Editing can take several rounds of rereading and rewriting.

2. Plagiarism

Plagiarism is increasingly become serious phenomenon. Acknowledging your sources are important to increase your credibility

What is plagiarism?

• Copying somebody else’s paper and delivering it as your own

• Literally copying large part of somebody else’s text with or without referencing

• Copying paragraph or sentence without quotes

• Copying with some changes in words with or without references

• Writing down a paragraph or sentence while it is not clear whose work it is.

• Copying somebody else’s text with incorrect sources.

What is not plagiarism?

• Writing down common knowledge

• Quoting of quantitative data with source place directly

• Quoting a number of sentences from another author with proper reference to the author

• Paraphrasing with reference.

Causes of plagiarism

• It is easy to copy somebody else’s work with the rise of computer and internet

• Many online firms offer papers against payment

• The person does not know precisely what is right or wrong.

How to avoid plagiarism?

• Paraphrase

• Quote only a brief paragraph

• Include correct references

• Collect few similar text and write down the comparisons

• Do not make yourself responsible for judgements of others

• Do not accept any excuses to commit plagiarism.

3. Reporting: Opening Parts

Standard reporting consist of title page table of contents, acknowledgement and introduction with some other optional parts

A title page (of a research report) includes:

• A clear and informative title and descriptive subtitle

• Full name of authors in alphabetical sequence

• Place and date

• Name of supervisor

• Institutional affiliation

A Table of contents includes:

• A typographical formula revealing the structure

• All introductory components following the table of contents

• All part titles in capital letters and bold print

• All chapter titles and sections that are numbered

• All closing components with page indication

A Preface/Acknowledgement includes:

• A short explanation stating why this research is of interest

• A brief reference to the scientific discourse that relates to this piece of work

• A list of the people you have cooperated

• A ‘thank you’ line for your supervisor? It can be counter-productive.

• ‘I’ form can be use instead of we

• Name, place and month/year at the end

• n shorter article acknowledgement can contain your background else well.

An Introduction includes:

• Basic research question and research aims

• A longer explanation of the background of your question

• An explanation of the methodology

• Outline of parts/chapters

• Guidance for different types of readers

• No announcement of a conclusion/summary

• A statement concerning all of the relevant choice

• Some definition is necessary

Layout opening components

Some minimum requirements: 1. Title page, 2. Table of content, 3. Preface/acknowledgement, 4. introduction

4. Reporting: Main body

User-friendliness = Readability

• Firstly, state what is the main message

• Always organise text according to an increasing degree of specificity

• Assist the reader with summaries ad intelligent headings

Purposeful chapters and sections

• Refer to the content of the last section

• State what is discussed in the section itself

• Make clear why you have chosen this particular sequence

• Think about a ‘catchy’ first line that attracts the attention of the reader

Conclusive chapter and sections

• Always give a brief summary of a chapter and a longer section

• Never add material/information to the presentation in your concluding statement

• Think about the nature of your last line

Paragraphs

• Paragraph are not sections

• A paragraph indicates a separate element in your text

• Focused opening lines enable readers to grasp your message quickly

5. Reporting: Final Parts

Minimum requirement: conclusions and biography with some optional such as epilogue and glossary

Conclusion

• Conclusion always repeats the research questions

• After summarising, write the well-structured answer to the question

• Final conclusion considers the flaws in your research methodology or other problems

• A conclusion never adds new information

• The conclusion ends with a good last line

Conclusion specify recommendations for further research

Epilogue

It is mainly used when new information has appeared between time of finishing the main transcript and going to the supervisor

Glossary

It contains concepts and a short description of their meaning. It is not a complement of the text. Try to refrain from composing a glossary

Annexes

You put an explanation, data and tables in an annex:

• When the information can be summarised easily in the text

• When it only contains background information

• When you need to explain of methodology

• Always includes the full questionnaire

Some rules of annex:

• Stand on its feet

• Write annex only when you have referred to it in the text

• Give annexes a number

• Limit the number

• Number the pages of the annexes as ongoing pages

Bibliography

Index

It contains the most important concepts and names and reveals the location in the text by page number. It is a good idea to write index as it might help to consider the keywords that are most relevant to your type of research.

6. Argumentation

Argumentation = dull

Scientific text is transparent, predictable and relatively dull. You specify everything beforehand

Characteristics of good and bad argumentation

Good: clarity, succinctness, simplicity, precision

Bad: ambiguity, lengthiness, unnecessary use of complete vocabulary, inaccuracy

Pro and con arguments

A good method of arguing is by systematically trying to list arguments ‘in favour’ and ‘against’ an observation.

• If there are many convincing arguments, it indicates the overall argument might be true

• If more against, it indicates that you should not support the observation

• Some argument can be more important than others

• If the number of pros and cons are the same, think of the conditions where each prevails

Schematising your argumentation

Schematising is the use of table and logic tree to argue

Definitions

• Clear, succinct

• Non-circular

• Content specific

• Explicit on main points and side issues

Fallacies in argumentation

Some common fallacies in argumentation:

• The use of authority and big names

• Use of normative adjectives

• Use of normative assessments

• Improper deductions

Strengths and weaknesses

It is better to make an inventory and then make a selection from an overall view than on the basis of partial argumentation

Necessary and/or sufficient condition?

Two conditions are whether it is necessary or sufficient. The strongest type of argument is when it is necessary and also sufficient

7. Rewriting

Your writing should be clear, succinct, simple and precise.

Powerful writing requires a particular state of mind...

Vices and virtues in attitudes to writing

• Vices: self-satisfaction, disdain, rigidity and resistance to working more rationally

• Virtues: self-criticism, empathy, professionalism, systematic and reflexivity

...Which changes over time

Two problems can appear if you lack the mental state to separate writing texts from reading:

• Many people have difficulty correcting their own writing

• If you try to correct it on-screen you lose the overview of all the components

8. Style: Common Errors

Reification

It means attaching personal characteristics to a organisation or institutions. It often error in style but may also indicate error in interpretation as well.

Passive instead of active phrasing

Passive writing tends to be heavy and unfavourable in writing.

Long instead of short sentences

Lengthy sentences are usually unnecessary and weaken argument

Abusing brackets and quotation marks

Try not to have more than two or three remarks in brackets per page

Most statements in bracket can be written in a separate sentence

Abuse of footnotes

Footnotes are often abused to elaborate on certain additional points that are excluded from the text. Exception to this:

When referencing to interviews

When referring to ad internet source

When you aim at different audiences

Unspecific time indication

Be specific in timing issue and always be positive

Unclear or ambiguous indications

Use name correctly to ensure no ambiguities

Gender-specific language

Avoid using this language since it is more appropriate to use alternatives

Writing in another language

If you write in another language make sure you are sufficiently fluent in that language

9. Style: Phrasing Problems

It sometimes better to avoid using some words such as these:

• ‘Having said this': you are writing not talking

• ‘Thus.., therefore’: conclusion does not have to be announced

• ‘In short’: so before you couldn’t formulate your argument in a more concise way

10. Spelling: Common Errors

1. Time indication

• You can use slash to indicate a financial or academic year

• You can abbreviate months when used in tables and footnotes

2. Numerals

• Generally spell the numbers. Nevertheless for more tedious one numeral can be used

• Be aware of punctuation differences

3. Common spelling errors for non-native English speakers

Non-native speaker sometimes try to link words wrongly or wrong usage of hyphen. English nevertheless has used some compound words as well

4. Typos and spell checkers

Typographical errors are irritating and decrease the credibility of the text. Be aware of the difference between American and British English

5. Authentic foreign keywords

• Explain the first time they appear

• Does not apply for company names

• Consistency in spelling

Anglicised names

Consistency in names is important

Listing common words

In order to avoid lengthy and tedious spelling checks, start by making a short list of the words that you are likely to use often. Also decide upon your preferred spelling.

11. Quoting and Paraphrasing

Three dimensions of correct quotation: 1. The difference between direct quotation and paraphrasing, 2. How to reproduce the text and 3. When and how to add changes to a quote

Direct quotations

• A few words: Put this in single quotation marks and use a comma to separate your own introductory phrase

• A short quotations: use a colon to introduce smaller quotations

• Longer quotations: usually indented and separated from the main text. Some publishers leave out quotation marks for these indented quotes

• Consecutive quotations: it is necessary to indicate source of each in a separate reference

Paraphrasing

You reproduce substantially the form and combination of ideas taken from another source but put it in your own words.

• Referring to sources is even necessary if you adopt line of reasoning, idea, phrase and even a word from someone else

• Abstain from paraphrasing an argument that has been paraphrased by someone else

• Never paraphrase an indirect source while referring to the original source

• When paraphrasing a list of points, includes the source and introductory sentence

Sources for quotations

• Secondary sources: looks for the original sources and quote properly.

• Interviews: no direct quotation from interviewee. When referencing, try to accommodate privacy of the interviewee

Changing quotes?

• Original spelling: do not change original spelling. Insert parentheses when you omit something from direct excerpt. Add bracket if you change the word form

• Double/single quotations: depends on your style. Use double when you want to emphasise that in the original excerpt one word gets quoted.

• Add emphasis: state emphasis added whenever you underline or italics some words in the quotation.

12. References

Also refer to your source. Reference and bibliography should enable reader to 1. Return to the original sources, 2.show the reader where you got the information from, 3. Enter into a more fruitful discussion

Reference systems

• Harvard reference system: it gives a shortened reference in the text and a full reference in bibliography

• Note reference system: it gives the reference in a note at the bottom of a page. Do not use end-notes, no abbreviation if possible.

Reference types

• General referencing: if you mention a general message in the writing of other, it is sufficient to mention the author and the year of publication. For newspaper and magazine, it is better to use date than the number of edition.

• Argument reference: it should follow that the more specific you use the work of other the more specific the reference will be.

• Internet references: always reveal the complete source as well as the date consulted, directly mention the article instead of the complete website address (for article), and refer to the author if you know the writer.

13. Abbreviations and Acronyms

1. Abbreviations: When to avoid them

• A reader will not automatically know what you mean by an abbreviation

• It is better to spell abbreviations in full the first time and repeat the abbreviations during a longer text

• The meaning of abbreviations can be completely different in different language

• Write in full, do not use contracted form

• Readers think of different meanings with common abbreviations of Latin expressions in scientific texts.

2. Abbreviations: How to use them correctly

• Abbreviation job titles: it is recommended to check national spelling as it differs from country to country

• International system of measurement: usually written in lower case

• Currency indications: currency abbreviation should always be preceded by the currency indication. Spell the currency if you are unsure that the reader understands.

• Nationally used abbreviations: usage of some nationally used abbreviation is allowed even in English language like status of companies

• Abbreviation with or without full stop: it is dropped in international system of measurement and in some language for personal indication. Most abbreviation uses no full stop. Full stop added in abbreviation of countries and cities and according to convention

• Economise on space: table, boxes and figures: you can use more abbreviation in tables, boxes and figure but you need to explain the meaning.

14. Tables, Figures and Boxes

1. Main aspects tables/figures/boxes

• The status: always identify the source accurately, no source indication means it is your own invention

• The aim: it contains a clear heading/ title that reveals the topic, the place and the time frame.

• The main contents: distinguish column and row indicators, includes a legend and under the table includes explanations

• Figures, tables and boxes should be a support for the text but it should stand on its own.

2. Qualitative tables

Table consist of summarise of your own argument and other people’s argument.

3. Layout: tables and figures

• Always spell figure and table in full

• Number tables and figures preferably by chapter

• Always begin the heading/title in capital letter

• No full stop at the end of items

• Always place the number and description above the table.

• Capital letter for source and note indication

• Add explanatory notes

• Distinguish clearly what belongs to table/figures and what belongs to the main text

• Be aware of copyright provisions

• Position table on relevant page

• Use landscape only if the table has many columns

4. Layout: Boxes

When included, boxes:

• Should you have a clear function in the text

• Often serve illustrative and/or layout purposes

• Should identify a source that can be placed in or below the box

• Should preferably not longer than one page

. Bibliography

Golden rules of a bibliography

• list your sources alphabetically and chronologically

• Do not include sources that you have not referred to in the text

• Do not include works that you have not read

• Do not split up your bibliography according to sources

Digital administration bibliography

Some advantages of using digital administration bibliography:

• Abstracts are included in your bibliography

• Keywords are included

• Automatically updates your bibliography

• Providers of these programs frequently update their reference style

• Makes your research effort more efficient

Bibliography: author

• Starts most of the time with the last name of an author.

• Prefix: in references in the text they are stated first

Overview main bibliographical references

Most widely used bibliography references are summed up in this paragraph.

Books

Date of publication: only state the year

Full title information of publication

Essential information on the publisher

Never used the original source if you used a translation

Date of publication

Periodicals

Add the exact page references in a periodical article

Website

Adds: It is necessary to include the exact date, URL and store email address that was used as a reference

Layout bibliography

• When the reference is longer that one line use an indent for the remainder of the reference

• It is sufficient to use ‘-‘ when one name is used several times

• Works by single author precede works edited by that author

• Bibliographical entry always refers to the whole source

16. Layout

A good layout is always instrumental in getting you message across

One space

Always leave only one space margin after full stop, comma, etc

Italics

Do not hesitate to use italics to attract reader’s attention

Indents

Consider the consequences of using indent as it may give the shaky image

Chapters/sections

Begin on a new page (Chapter), section can begin anywhere

Chapter generally is separate part of the analysis that is more than five pages

Write down the number for a section not by name

Paragraphs

• Use tab or one or two spaces before the first line

• Avoid having many short paragraph on one page

• Avoid long paragraph of more than one page

Position title/headings/figures/tables

Check that title is not positioned at the bottom of the page. This is called widow or orphan construction

Tables and figures should also be an one page

Headings and titles

• Formulate short headings

• Rarely contains full sentence

• Formulate active and direct headings

• Always use it as support and guidance

• Do not centre headings

• Make it clearly distinguishable

• Show different level consistently

Clearly structured text

Text should be clearly predictable with simple headings, subheadings, etc.

Core skills - Presentation - What are the requirements for effective presentations? - Chapter 6

1. Principles of Effective Presentation

• A good presentation can never be a substitute for weak contents

• The occasion defines the most communication form

• Representation defines the way you want to be looked at

• Effective presentations balance speaking and listening. It is a co-production of speaker and audience

• Bad presentation is result of bad preparation

• Act responsibly

From limitation to opportunity

Presentation is output oriented skills and their effectiveness depends on the sender and receiver. The presentation can be better than writing because of the possibility of direct feedback. Presentation can also convey message in an interactive way.

Respect for rhetoric

Three building blocks for persuasive presentation:

Logos----)the force of arguments, relates to the content of the presentation

Ethos----)the credibility of the person

Pathos----)the degree to which the presentation affects the audience

The building blocks of effective presentation

Effective presentations basically apply all the rules of constructive communication which balances speaking and listening. It depends on the time allotted, the correct assessment of the audience, the chosen concept of content and the design of supportive tools and the degree of co-production.

2. Preparation

1. Timing your time

It depends on the complexity of the topic, experience and type of presentation

It is best to prepare a time schedule for preparation period. Use half of the time to conceptualise, i.e inventory and structure, and the other half for elaboration, i.e formulation and editing.

2. Assessing the audience and setting in advance

Audience assessment is very important as it will help you to create a suitable presentation. Some questions to consider:

• How many people and the reason they are there?

• Composition of audience and the level of understanding of the topic?

• Their and your status?

• The period of your presentation in relation to other presentation and break?

• Other speakers?

3. Prioritize Aims

• Transfer information

• Make yourself know to audience

• Stimulate your audience

• Try to please audience

• Add to occasion

• Trigger questions, etc

4. Identify availability of equipment and the setting

• Equipment: checks what is available in the place. Presentation tools are very important

• Setting: actual setting in regards to room size, etc.

• Posture: how the room is organised

5. Practical and try-out

• Mirror, fake audience, friendly audience: practise your presentation in front of mirror, a fake audience, such as posters, or friends to simulate the real presentation

• Noticeable differences are in physical (nervousness), Time (longer than in tryouts), Clothing (more proper cloth), interaction (interest level) and Infrastructure (supporting tools).

• Further recommendations: Leave room for spontaneity so do not write word for word and learn it by heart. Make few tryouts to ensure that problems in the previous tryouts can be rectified.

3. Presentation Formats

Three types of presentations can be distinguished 1. Presentations aimed at the transfer of knowledge, 2. Presentations aimed at convincing people to join and 3. Occasional speeches.

Knowledge-oriented presentations

Examples: Content presentation, informative presentation and introducing speaker

Convincing presentations

Example: Persuasive presentation, recruitment presentation, debate and dialogue

Occasional speeches

Examples: Rendering thanks, Welcoming, paying tribute, responding to a tribute, inaugural speech and table speech

4. Presentation Design

• The time limit: what is the available time

• Presentation type: what is the occasion, audience and their expectations

• Start with a ‘situation’ or problem: start with something that people can relate to

• A limited number of key points: two or three key points only

Define a clear structure: define your ‘storyboard’

• Make a hierarchy of points

• Do not present long lists of ideas

• Only make statements that reinforce main point

• Use mind map

Invent oratory highlights: find interesting one-liner to make people remember easily

Plan repetition

• Modest repetition is necessary

• It keeps audience focused

• Too much can be annoying

Always explain consequences of your argument clearly

Most audience is busy following the presentation. Not presenting the consequences can lead to distraction for the audiences

Plan three parts

• Introduction: not too long, address the problem at hand

• Main part: make explicit the structure, give sufficient examples, use graphics, always focus

• Conclusion: separate slides to announce the final part, keep it short, make catchy final line.

5. Design (PowerPoint) Slides

Advantages: prepare slides at home, retain eye contact with your audience, ability to reproduce very complex drawings, presentations are easier to customise for each audience, etc.

Disadvantages: loss of flexibility, too many words in slides, inability to change slides during presentation, etc.

1. Simplicity

Never put too much information on one slide. Splitting more complex part into more slides can be better.

2. Succinctness

Use keywords. Do not write down whole sentence on slide.

Use rounded figures.

3. Clarity

Use clear letters that are readable.

Do not use too much complex vocabulary.

Include a short header and footer on each slides.

4. Precision

Always reveal your sources if you use someone else’s data or information

Number the slides

Keep the layout consistent

5. Further tips

Comic can be a useful way of communicating your message

Print a paper copy of the original slides

Make hand-out of the most important slides for the audience

Always prepare alternative ways of presenting in case of malfunction of equipments.

6. Last-minute Presentation Checklist

Up front

• Clothing: dress appropriately for the occasion

• Take the following tools from home with you: slides, laptop, cue cards, food, drinks, etc.

Place of action

• Always arrive on time: check the availability of the place, take sometimes to get the feeling of the surroundings, check clothing for the last time

• Check the equipment: check before hand how the equipment works, ensure that all audience can read the slides, make sure microphone works and check laptop

• Organisation of presentation: it is best to have a general slide that shows progress, draw graphs and pictures before the presentation, arrange the notes

• Posture: try to make contact with audience, adopt a positive and self-assured posture, smile

• Phrasing: greet the audience, introduce yourself, avoid referring to personal history, refrain from using popular words

• Questions: indicate when people can ask questions

• Time schedule: discuss what your time frame, do not negotiate with the chairperson, if presentation is too short give time for people to ask more question

Effective Use of Practical Tools

(PowerPoint) slides

It has many advantages but the drawbacks appear in the practical use of PowerPoint slides

• Start presentation----)make clear about the availability of the slides, ensure that you will not trip over the cable

• Specific techniques during presentation----)do not cover part of the overhead transparency, check regularly whether the audience can read the whole slide, etc.

Paper hand-outs

• Often use to provide printed version of the slides

• Write a number of questions and leave blank for the audience to take note

Flip chart, whiteboard/blackboard

Flip chart is for smaller audience while whiteboard is appropriate for larger audience.

• Write large enough

• Fill it systematically

• Do not speak while writing

Video/DVD

Clip is very effective in conveying message but:

• Practise to use the machineries

• You should ensure that the clip does not distract your audience

• It is sometimes difficult to integrate

Exotic tools?

• Painting or object as a symbol for complex analysis

• Short piece of music can appeal to emotions

A Balanced Approach to Questioning

1. Questions from the audience during presentation

It is better not to allow this if you are nervous. But sometimes questions for clarification can help the presentation a lot. Be sure to distinguish the questions

2. Questions to the audience during presentation

To involve the audience you can ask questions but not overdo it

3. Question after the presentation

1. Begin by acknowledging the question

2. Summarise the question

3. Try to get confirmation of your answer

Body Language

Body language of the presenter conveys message to the audience and here are some example:

• Head: downward look - shy, insecure which means you are afraid of the audience

• Voice: monotonous, slow and low - losing the interest of your audience which means you are stressed and not well-prepared

• Hands: extreme movement - restless and disturbing the audience which means you over prepared

Dealing with Disasters

Some problems may arise before, during after the presentation. Be sure to try to have alternatives so that the problem does not hinder your presentation. Some problems are:

• Equipment breaks down: be sure to have whiteboard marker to proceed

• Forgotten object: you forgot to bring important object. Explain the situation to the audience

• Lost your text: proceed if you can but if not explain it to the audience while you check back to your notes.

Core skills - Management - What are the requirements for effective management? - Chapter 7

The Principles of Effective Team Management

Some of principles of effective management are as follow:

• Every team is a group, but a group is rarely a team

• Effective team push to produce high quality result and thrive on diversity

• Effective team manage their internal and external dependencies smartly

• Every team member is equally responsible for the end-result

• The need for effective project ad team management----)management skills and also diversity are required for effectiveness. Becoming an effective manager requires professionalism, flexibility and self-criticism.

• The learning cycle of team management----)all project teams go through comparable stages: 1. Forming, 2. Storming (take adequate time for brainstorming), 3. Norming (deciding on the objective norms), 4. Performing (implementation), 5. Finish of the project. Team is formed according to the stage it is in

• Contents and principles----)effective group members change roles actively. Effective collaboration in a research group means giving as well as taking, mutual respect, a commitment to teamwork, basic discipline in delivering what is promised on time and not assuming that you are busier than others.

Forming: Members, Roles and Dependencies

Step 1: Identify Skill Profiles

Some techniques to define your individual skill profile: fill out your personal learning report, define your research orientation and personal attitude

These techniques help to understand what you want, what you can contribute and evaluate better.

Step 2: Identify Team Roles

Individual team member will play many roles in the team. Linking team roles and skill profiles and research ambitions can be done through Belbin’s team roles. There are nine role, Coordinator, Implementer, Shaper, Plant or innovator, Resource investigator, Monitor/evaluator, team worker, completer/finisher and specialist

Step 3: Network position and dependency relations

There are two dependency relations:

External networks: there are two problems namely closed network where people are too dedicated until it causes groupthink and open networks where the people are more opportunistic

Internal networks: dependency on group member on each other

Brainstorming

Brainstorming phases

1. Generating ideas: concentrating on generating ideas without any judgement

2. Examining the option: clustered the options and listed accordingly

3. Eliminating unfeasible ideas

4. Discussing the remaining options: list the advantages and disadvantages

5. Selecting options

Brainstorming strategies

1. Associative brainstorming: writes down all words associated with the topic

2. Process brainstorming: each member writes down the concrete idea

3. Collective verbal brainstorming: just says all about the topic and one person writes it down.

3. Managing the process

Some roles that is necessary

• The chair----)the chair needs to manage the brainstorming session to ensure effectiveness

• The rapporteur----)the person need to write down all ideas generated by the member

Norming: Tasks and Roles

This is the stage where the team members are divided into different tasks and roles

1. Basics: a common attitude

2. Positive attitude: active participation with a positive attitude as forceful debate will not work.

3. Beware of reductive listening

2. Process: the two most important tasks

3. Chair function: Time management, keeping to the issue, project planning, people and facilitator

4. Minute taker function: Memory, check, action and informant

Decision-making

Phases of decision making

1. Recognise and define the problem: the problem should be defined and clearly diagnosed

2. Aggregate solutions: group meeting to find the solution

3. Make scenarios: create scenarios and anticipate the consequences

4. Selection: selecting one of the implementation plan

5. Evaluation of the implementation: regular evaluation to optimise the implementation.

Types of decision making

1. Unanimity: total agreement

2. Consensus: not all agree but no one disagree

3. Sociocratic method: decision made if no one has a significant counter argument

4. Majority

5. Delegating: giving the power to certain subgroup or individual

Basics of Effective Negotiations

Negotiation is important to reach agreement on certain things.

1. Four general principles for participations to negotiations

2. People: put yourself in the position of other and be hard on the problem but not on the people

3. Interest: reconcile interests. Compatible interests usually exist

4. Options: option for mutual gain and try to broaden your options

5. Criteria: objective criteria should be used

2. Before negotiations start

Always establish your negotiation space beforehand.

3. The actual process of negotiation

4. Inventory/problem definition: effective brainstorming serves best when making comments about other is not permitted and all member can contribute

5. Structure/diagnosis: try to summarise the most important ideas

6. Formulation/design: assign priority ranking to the list of ideas

7. Editing/implementation: final ideas put into practice

Group contract

Two types of contract:

1. The group report consists of problem definition which is research orientation and personal attitude and diagnosis that is about the team roles and network topologies.

2. The group contract consists of output/design, implementation, evaluation and individual checks:

Output/design: the SMART- method

Specific, measurable, acceptable, realistic goals and agreement and correct timing

Implementation: divided tasks: 4W model

What/who/why/when

Especially for time management is very important as agreement needs to be made beforehand

Evaluation: coping with unhealthy group dynamics and free-riders

Contract should also cover the possibility of punishment for free-rider behaviour. It requires commitment by all members

Individual checks

What can I expect from group, what happens when participants have not prepared for a meeting, who will be who, how to deal with free-rider and feedback?

Effective meetings

Four characteristics that influence effectiveness of a meeting:

1. The agenda

Three conditions: a fixed agenda, a time frame and clear objectives for the meeting

Component of ordinary agenda: opening, discussion of last meeting minutes, subjects to be dealt with, etc

2. Being an effective chair

Try to reveal a hidden agenda means that the chair need to find whether participants have other obligations and ensure that participant feel free to make suggestions

Some task of chairperson: set agenda, open the meeting, goes through each point of the agenda, and control the execution of the agreed tasks after the meeting.

3. Taking appropriate minutes

1. Rule 1: make sure that you summarise all of the (non)decisions made.

2. Rule 2: Name the person who is responsible for the execution of each decision

3. Rule 3: Always include the time frame for the execution of each discussion

4. Rule 4: Finish the minutes as soon as possible, and send them to the participants immediately so that they are confronted with their responsibility

5. Rule 5: Minutes can be kept short

4. Understanding group dynamism: a communication topology

Four rather common topologies:

1. Web/circle: everyone communicates with each other regularly

2. Star: there is one leader who is addressed by everyone

3. Hierarchical: informal order of merit

4. Confrontation/debate: two leader talk to each other and within their own ‘camp’

Feedback and Coaching

Effective feedback depends on measurable goals, positive feedback on the achievement of the person and an appropriate reward for the performance

Becoming a tutor helps you to deepen your understanding, to use literature more actively and to take bigger responsibility

1. Describe what you see first, and only then what you think

2. Positive feedback is descriptive, factual, specific and concrete

3. Do not make any remarks on the (perceived) feelings or thoughts of others

4. Positive feedback deals with actual behaviour (is objective and easier for the receiver to accept)

5. Use ‘I’ instead of ‘we’, avoid should/must

6. Using certain words and avoiding others can help established a constructive conversation

7. Say what you like, not only what you do not like

8. Start with positive feedback

9. Assume a positive listening attitude

10. Positive feedback is open, it allows other members of the group to give their commentary on your observations

11. Do not ask ‘why’ questions, but search for a solutions

12. Positive feedback is respectful and takes the interest of the receiver of the feedback into account

13. Focus on the present and the future

14. Positive feedback deals with behaviour that can be changed; is aimed at good timing and given directly after the behaviour appears

15. Make clear appointments

Unhealthy Group Dynamics

This can occur in any group. Be prepared to deal with these sources of conflict: not listening to each other, an unbalanced work distribution and participants not keeping their promises

1. Groupthink: taking yourself too seriously

2. When group members try so hard to conform. Group needs to open up to outside opinion.

3. Some general solution for groupthink: self-criticism, empathy and reflexivity and professionalism

2. The changing causes of free-rider behaviour

Free-riding can be prevented by group contract and discussion of the problem beforehand. If not dealt with properly this can leads to the forming of group that creates its own free-riders due to dominance of certain people or when some people are not happy with the division of tasks. In different stages, free-riding can occur.

Dealing with Conflicts

Clever negotiator: realises the importance to get it right, and actively works for a positive atmosphere.

Approach 1: adopt different and changing bargaining styles during conflicts

Effective negotiators combine their self interest while actively try to handle power problems and show collaborative mental characteristics and have flexibility

Approach 2: make a distinction between mediating and negotiating

Mediating: more distance but also make sure to find a solution to the problem

Negotiating: part of the bargaining process and involve in exchange of ideas to come up with solution

The Final Stage: Tasks and Roles

1. Finishing the project

2. Make specific tasks assigned to each group member as concrete as possible

3. Designate a final editor

4. Final layout checker

5. Do final check

2. Evaluating the project

3. Redraft the group work

4. Decide whether to continue

5. Ask for an exit meeting