This article discusses psychological acculturation, focusing on the internal processes of change experienced by immigrants when they come into contact with the host culture. The article aims to present a new model of acculturation that incorporates recent work in social and cognitive psychology. They provide a brief overview of the current state of acculturation research, highlighting its deficiencies. The new model of acculturation is based on four pillars: social cognition, cultural competence, social identity, and social stigma. The article emphasizes the significance of social stigma and explores how individuals cope with the challenges of being different due to factors like skin color, language, and ethnic background. The article concludes by proposing a fresh approach to stimulate further theoretical and empirical research in the field of acculturation.

What is the history of acculturation research?

Acculturation research focuses on the process by which newcomers to a culture incorporate themselves into the mainstream society.

Early theorists like Robert Park proposed a three-stage model of contact, accommodation, and assimilation. Anthropologists later expanded on this model, emphasizing the concept of acculturation and its effects on cultural patterns. Researchers added a psychological dimension, considering factors such as value systems, developmental sequences, and role determinants. Berry's model introduced the idea of different adaptation strategies, including assimilation, integration, rejection, and deculturation.

Further studies explored multidimensional and quantitative models, highlighting cultural awareness and ethnic loyalty as key factors. Discrimination and perceived power imbalances also influenced the acculturation process. Individual characteristics, personality traits, and personal preferences play a role in acculturation, which can involve active involvement in either culture or a balance between both.

Current social psychological research offers new insights into understanding the complexity of individual and group processes involved in acculturation.

What is the terminology of the new vision of acculturation research?

To understand the new perspective on cultural adaption that is presented in this article, it is important to understand what the following terms mean:

1. Social Cognition Social cognition refers to the study of mental processes involved in social interactions. It focuses on how ordinary people think about others and how they perceive their own thoughts about people. Social cognition research emphasizes the role of motivation and intention in shaping perception and cognition.
2. Cultural Competence. Cultural competence refers to the ability to function effectively in a culture by understanding and adopting its values, beliefs, customs, and language. It involves adapting to the majority culture while maintaining one's own cultural identity. Cultural competence plays a crucial role in acculturation, particularly for immigrants experiencing cultural transitions.
3. Social Identity. Social identity theory states that individuals' behavior is influenced by their identification with larger societal groups, such as cultures, organizations, or social categories. People's thoughts and behaviors are guided by their group membership, and social identities are socially constructed based on individuals' group references. Social identity influences acculturation, as individuals' identification with a particular group can impact their willingness to acculturate.
4. Social Dominance. Social dominance theory suggests that social hierarchies exist in all societies and cultures. Individual orientations toward social dominance vary, and hierarchies are sustained through cultural ideologies that legitimize and centralize social class distinctions, gender roles, and other forms of dominance. Social dominance theory explains intergroup relations and the role of power and hierarchy in maintaining group differences.
5. Social Stigma. Social stigma refers to the devaluation or disapproval of individuals who possess attributes that are negatively perceived by society. Stigmatization occurs when individuals are associated with attributes that lead to devaluation in a particular social context. Stigmatized individuals may face prejudice, discrimination, and negative perceptions. Stigma can be visible (e.g., race) or concealable (e.g., certain ethnicities) and affects individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

These constructs are interconnected and play significant roles in understanding cultural adaptation and acculturation processes. Cultural competence, social identity, social dominance, and social stigma influence individuals' experiences, motivations, and behaviors as they navigate cultural transitions and interact with the dominant culture.

How do people cope with social stigma?

People who belong to stigmatized groups are sensitive to information in their environment that can influence how they interpret negative reactions or evaluations from others. They may be more inclined to attribute these negative outcomes to prejudice and discrimination. However, some research suggests that stigmatized individuals are hesitant to blame discrimination even when there is evidence to support it. This reluctance can be attributed to the psychological costs associated with making such attributions. It can lower their social self-esteem, decrease their perceived control over outcomes, and strain interpersonal relationships.

The willingness of stigmatized individuals to attribute negative outcomes to discrimination may be influenced by their perception of control over their stigmatized condition. If they believe their stigmatization is their own fault or under their control, they are less likely to blame prejudice and discrimination for negative outcomes. Additionally, ideologies related to personal responsibility can predict which stigmatized individuals and groups are unwilling to attribute negative outcomes to discrimination. For example, if individuals believe in a just system that rewards hard work and considers group differences in social status fair, they are less likely to perceive discrimination based on their ethnicity.

The salience of stigmatized group identity and the degree of identification with the group also impact how stigmatized individuals perceive themselves as targets of discrimination. Highly identified individuals are more likely to notice intergroup inequalities, label them as unjust, and attribute discrimination to their group membership. However, it's important to note that their consciousness of discrimination may contribute to their stronger social identity as a member of a stigmatized group. This perception of discrimination can fuel the search for greater affinity to their heritage culture among later generations of ethnics.

Stigmatized individuals may protect their personal self-esteem by making social comparisons with others who share their stigmatized status. By comparing themselves to others who are likely to have similar poor outcomes, they can reduce perceptions of discrimination. People tend to make interpersonal comparisons with in-group members because they are more readily available and salient in their environments. The prevalence of ethnic enclaves, support groups, and affiliations with similar others is influenced by the benefits of connecting with those who share a stigmatizing attribute.

The effects of stigma on self-concept depend on the specific features of the social context. Temporary changes in self-concept can occur, especially when encountering role models or mentors from the mainstream social group. Stigmatized individuals may make greater efforts to identify with the mainstream group in such situations. The social context plays a significant role in determining the activation of specific aspects of self-concept.

Stigmatized individuals may also experience attribution ambiguity, where they are uncertain whether the behavior directed at them by majority group members is a response to their social identity or their individual qualities. This ambiguity can have negative effects, leading to cautious behavior and reservation in interpersonal interactions. Some individuals may choose to hide their social identity, resulting in perceptions of shyness or poor self-concept.

Stigma poses a threat to individuals' sense of safety, and coping strategies such as in-group social comparisons, attributions to prejudice, and disengagement from the source of discrimination help stigmatized individuals maintain a sense of worth despite devaluation. Stigma also influences how individuals perceive and interpret their social world. The construction of social identities and the meanings associated with them involve cognitive processes and sense-making. Stereotypes play a role in shaping impressions, judgments, and behaviors towards stigmatized individuals, and coping strategies emerge from interpretations of social contexts and events.

What stance do the authors of this article take?

The authors believe that the current psychological models of acculturation, developed over three decades of research, have limited value. These models have several shortcomings:

1. They have a static view of intergroup relations and fail to address the important motivations behind acculturation.
2. They assume that acculturation is a uniform process for all newcomer groups, regardless of race, culture, or social status.
3. The methodology used in these models relies heavily on self-reported preferences for language use, entertainment practices, and friendship patterns, which may not provide a comprehensive understanding of acculturation.

Instead, the authors propose that a conceptual framework based on social cognitions, social identity, and social stigma offers a better understanding of the acculturation process. International migration has a profound impact on individuals' self-identity, requiring them to redefine and reconstruct their personal and social identities in new cultural contexts. Immigrants develop various social identities related to both the host culture and their heritage culture.

Within the new social context, newcomers form perceptions of the expectations that the dominant group has of them. These perceptions influence the process of redefining their identity and the extent to which they choose to acculturate and become members of the host culture.

Acculturation research so far has been limited to correlational studies due to how acculturation has been defined and measured. The authors view acculturation as a dynamic social process that occurs through interactions between newcomers and members of the host culture. The social identities brought by immigrants and the identities they develop in the new environment shape their social cognitions, which, in turn, guide their behaviors, preferences, and strategies for adapting to the new culture.

As outsiders, immigrants often have less political power and influence and may face negative stigmatization from the dominant group. The dominant group's attitudes and perceptions toward different newcomer groups can vary, leading to different stereotypes and stigmas. The physical similarity of immigrants to the majority group can also affect the stigmas they experience.

It's important to note that newcomers may not always have the freedom to pursue their preferred acculturation strategy, as the expectations of the host culture can influence their acculturation and adaptation. Social stigmas play a significant role in shaping immigrants' strategies and cultural competencies during the acculturation process. Immigrants' cognitions of in-group and out-group relations, including stigmas, impact their acculturation and adaptation strategies.

Further research is needed to understand how immigrants' social cognitions and stigmas affect their acculturation and adaptation strategies, as well as their motivation to engage in the new culture. Exploring how immigrants cope with social stigmas and why individuals respond differently to the same stigma are important areas of study. Additionally, the influence of physical and cultural similarity to the host culture on the types of social stigmas endured by different immigrant groups should be examined.