Study Guide with article summaries for Youth and Sexuality at the University of Utrecht

Who was Alfred Kinsey?

Alfred Kinsey (1894-1856) was a biologist and sexologist whose research became a worldwide source of information about human sexuality and new standards for sex research. He reoriented the field and moved it away from the medical model to one encompassing a variety of disciplines. His research was foundational to the field of sexology and has influenced social and cultural values all over the world.

What did science on sexuality look like in the beginning of the twentieth century?

The modern study of sexuality began in the nineteenth century and was mostly dominated by physicians. Only a few physicians had specialized knowledge on sexual topics other than sexually transmitted diseases, but they were still viewed as the authority when it came to human sexuality. It was assumed that physicians should be the experts regarding sexual activities, since they were the experts on body functions.

How did Kinsey go into the field of sexology?

Kinsey was a broad-based scientist at a time when there was plenty of money available for research. He was a person who was not inhibited by body functions and who was very open about talking about sex. To him it represented a new field where little was known and much could be learned. He started gathering information and interviewing his students at the time, which led to resistance around him. He had to choose between teaching and researching and chose the latter. He then spent his time doing thousands of interviews and collecting information about premarital intercourse, frequency of sexual activity and number of partners.

What is Alfred Kinsey´s legacy?

Alfred Kinsey´s legacy can be summarized in the following points:

• He changed the nature of sexual studies.
• He forced a reexamination of public attitudes toward sex.
• He challenged the medical and psychiatric establishment to reassess its own views.
• He influenced the feminist movement and the gay and lesbian movement.
• He built a library and an institution devoted to sex research.

Sexual development is often oversimplified as a journey from a first kiss to the first sexual intercourse during adolescence. However, this perspective fails to acknowledge that sexual development is a lifelong process that extends beyond measurable heterosexual activities. It is important to recognize that individuals are sexual beings throughout their lives, and children and adolescents continually develop in this aspect, just as they do in other areas.

To understand sexual development in childhood and adolescence as a personal and individual maturation process, we need a more comprehensive and child-centered approach. This is necessary both in sexuality education tailored to different developmental stages and in providing a gradual understanding of the process for parents and educators.

What is sexuality?

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines sexuality and sexual health in broad terms, encompassing various dimensions such as gender identities, sexual orientation, pleasure, intimacy, and reproduction. It is essential to adopt positive and wellbeing-focused perspectives when conceptualizing childhood sexuality and designing sexuality education programs. This approach ensures that children and adolescents receive information that promotes healthy self-esteem, respect, and understanding of their own sexual development.

Sexuality manifests differently at different stages of development, and the needs of children and adolescents differ from those of adults. Sexual activities considered appropriate for adults can be harmful when engaged in by children, even if they are positive and beneficial for adults' wellbeing. Involvement in sexual acts with older individuals constitutes child sexual abuse, which is a severe issue in all societies. During adolescence, sexual development accelerates, with physical maturity occurring earlier than emotional readiness for reciprocal and responsible sexual encounters. Premature sexual experiences during childhood and adolescence have been associated with negative outcomes. However, as adolescence progresses, readiness and desire for intimate sexual experiences typically develop.

Just like other aspects of development, sexual development follows age-specific steps that arise from a child's or adolescent's intrinsic needs, readiness, and intentions. Despite increasing research in this area, there is still limited knowledge among health professionals, educators, and parents regarding normal sexual development. To support and safeguard the sexual development of children and adolescents across different stages, it is crucial to have a clear and easily understandable model that outlines the steps of sexual development. This model would assist parents, teachers, and professionals in working with children and adolescents.

Most existing sexuality education models primarily focus on late adolescence, emphasizing preventing unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases. They often neglect younger individuals' emotional needs and provide little guidance for teaching young children safety skills against sexual abuse. It is essential to develop positive and health-focused models that cover the entire span of childhood and adolescence, promoting self-understanding, respect for one's own developmental stage and needs, and pride in one's own development. Such models can help individuals build resilience against external pressures, appreciate and respect the needs of potential partners, and avoid crossing boundaries.

Classic psychoanalytical theory acknowledges the sexuality of children from infancy, dividing it into oral, anal, phallic, and early genital phases. Attachment theories suggest that children have an innate readiness to form attachments with others, which serves as a prototype for future social relationships, including romantic and erotic ones. Erikson's psychosocial theory describes development in stages from infancy to adulthood, with each stage presenting a unique psychosocial crisis that needs resolution. Developmental tasks theory emphasizes the completion of specific tasks at each stage as a prerequisite for success in subsequent stages. In adolescence, the focus shifts to identity formation, where sexuality and gender identity play central roles.

What are the roles of nature and nurture in sexuality?

The study of sexual development and gender identity involves the interplay of nature and nurture. Cognitive and social learning theories suggest that individuals actively construct gender schemas through interaction with the environment. Biological research examines genetic, hormonal, and neural mechanisms, as well as brain anatomy differences, in the development of gendered behaviors and gender identity. The brain exhibits sex differences influenced by both hormones and genes. Additionally, early social experiences can shape lasting sex differences through epigenetic influences. Research methods for studying childhood sexuality include direct observation, interviews or surveys with caregivers, and retrospective data collection. Empirical findings challenge the notion that prepubertal children are asexual, showing normative sexual behaviors from early stages of development. These behaviors include self-stimulation, exhibitionism, curiosity about the opposite sex, and various forms of sexual play. As children grow older, they engage in sexual exploration, develop sexual knowledge, and experience sexual fantasies. Cognitive aspects of sexual development involve learning social norms and acquiring knowledge about body parts, gender differences, and reproduction. Love and emotional connections also play a role, with children expressing infatuation and engaging in behaviors such as kissing and hugging. Overall, understanding childhood sexuality requires a multidimensional approach that considers both biological and environmental factors.

What is the model of Steps of Sexuality?

Given the developmental theories and empirical research, the physical, emotional, and cognitive aspects of sexuality are important in the development of children and adolescents. These facets of sexuality manifest differently in various developmental phases and are associated with different needs. The development starts with children's playful curiosity and openness, which later transitions to sensitivity and perplexity during early adolescence. As individuals mature, they experience increased desire and encouragement towards adult-type sexual activities.

In early childhood, it is crucial to establish a foundation of attachment, closeness, safety, curiosity, loving care, and trust. Children should learn to appreciate their bodies, respect boundaries, and adhere to social norms. This requires the development of self-regulation, social skills, and empathy. Adolescents, on the other hand, need guidance in exploring and expressing their sexuality, as well as navigating the external and internal pressures that arise during their social and pubertal maturation. It is important for parents, educators, and health professionals to understand sexual development in children and adolescents and provide age-appropriate guidance and education.

To address these needs, a comprehensive developmental model of sexual development is proposed, called the Steps of Sexuality. This model emphasizes the emotional, child-centered aspect of sexuality and takes a holistic approach. It consists of 11 steps that span from early childhood to young adulthood. However, it is important to note that the progression through these steps is not linear and can vary among individuals. The timing of each step depends on individual maturation, and individuals of the same age may be on different steps in their sexual development. The model aims to promote understanding and appreciation of diversity in sexual development and to provide support and guidance based on individuals' developmental phases and needs.

The existing literature on sexual behaviors in adolescence primarily focuses on heterosexual development. However, it is important to recognize that sexual minority youth may have unique challenges and experiences. They may navigate their own identities and face external pressures that differ from their heterosexual peers. Nonetheless, they go through similar phases of emotional development and have the same emotional needs. The Steps of Sexuality model is applicable to all individuals, regardless of sexual orientation or physical qualities.

In conclusion, a comprehensive developmental model of sexual development, the Steps of Sexuality, is proposed to guide parents, educators, and health professionals in understanding and supporting the sexual development of children and adolescents. This model emphasizes the emotional aspect of sexuality and recognizes the diversity of experiences and needs.

The article describes a research study investigating the link between testosterone and sexual desire in healthy adults. Previous studies have shown mixed evidence regarding this link, with some suggesting that men have higher sexual desire due to higher levels of testosterone. However, these studies have mostly been conducted with clinical populations or animal subjects. The current study aims to examine the role of psychosocial factors in understanding the association between testosterone and desire in healthy individuals. The study focuses on three psychosocial domains: sexual behavior, gender/sex attitudes, and sexual self-esteem. By integrating physiological and psychosocial variables, the study aims to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between testosterone and sexual desire.

How did the experiment go?

This experiment, part of the Partnering, Physiology, and Health (PPH) study, aimed to investigate the psychosocial context of hormone-intimacy links. The study included 196 participants (91 women and 105 men) recruited from the psychology participant pool and the community. The participants' age ranged from 18 to 35 years, with the majority being students or having some college or advanced training.

Several questionnaires were used to collect data on various aspects, including sexual desire, stress, mood, self-esteem, loneliness, exercise, and sexual body image. The Sexual Desire Inventory (SDI) was used to assess participants' sexual desire, measuring both solitary and dyadic desire. Other questionnaires measured well-being, perceived stress, positive and negative affect, self-esteem, loneliness, exercise frequency, and sexual body image.

Saliva samples were collected from participants to measure hormone levels. Testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) levels were assessed using radioimmunoassay. Salivary hormone assays were chosen due to their ease of collection, lack of biohazards, and correlation with serum hormone levels.

The statistical analyses included correlations, partial correlations, and linear regression. The researchers examined the relationships between T and sexual desire, and the potential influences, mediators, and moderators using the collected variables. Confounding variables such as test date, sampling time, BMI, nicotine use, and age were considered in the analyses. Separate analyses were conducted for men and women, except when examining gender differences specifically.

What are the results of this experiment?

Here are the key findings of this study:

1. The testosterone values for women (M = 13.36 pg/mL, SD = 6.25) and men (M = 83.36 pg/mL, SD = 30.79) were within expected ranges. Men had significantly higher testosterone levels than women.
2. Testosterone showed diurnal variation, with later times of testing resulting in lower testosterone levels.
3. Solitary and dyadic sexual desires were positively correlated for both men and women, indicating some level of association between the two, but they did not measure the same underlying construct.
4. Testosterone was negatively correlated with dyadic desire in women, but the correlation was not significant. Including other variables such as cortisol and perceived stress made the negative correlation significant, suggesting that these factors may influence the association between testosterone and dyadic desire in women.
5. Testosterone was positively correlated with solitary desire in women, but the correlation was not significant. Group difference analyses revealed that women with no solitary desire had significantly lower testosterone levels than women with some solitary desire.
6. Testosterone levels were not significantly correlated with either dyadic or solitary desire in men. Psychological variables and confounds did not account for the lack of association.
7. Men had significantly higher levels of both solitary and dyadic desire compared to women. Testosterone did not mediate the gender/sex differences in desire.

This study aimed to explore the relationship between psychosocial factors, testosterone, and sexual desire in healthy men and women. The findings challenged the assumption that T directly affects sexual desire or explains gender differences in desire. The study revealed that in women, T was negatively correlated with dyadic sexual desire when controlling for stress parameters. However, solitary sexual desire was positively linked to T. Masturbation frequency was found to be a confounding factor, suggesting that previous studies may have overlooked its importance. The study also debunked the notion that T is more important for men's sexual desire than women's, as T and desire were not linked in healthy men. Instead, behavioral variables, such as masturbation, were significant predictors of gender differences in desire. The study emphasized that desire should be viewed as a multidimensional construct and highlighted the complex associations between T and different aspects of desire. The limitations of the study included the sample's age range and the potential influence of other untested variables. Additionally, the study could not establish the directionality of the relationship between desire and T. Overall, the findings shed light on the role of psychosocial factors and challenge existing assumptions about the relationship between T and sexual desire.

This article explains evolutionary psychology and some important findings in the field.

What is evolutionary psychology?

Evolutionary psychology is a multidisciplinary field that combines insights from evolutionary theory, biology, cognitive psychology, anthropology, economics, computer science, and paleoarchaeology. It is based on several core premises:

• Manifest behavior is influenced by underlying psychological mechanisms in the brain, along with external and internal inputs.
• Evolution by selection is the primary process responsible for creating complex organic mechanisms (adaptations).
• Evolved psychological mechanisms are specialized to solve adaptive problems that humans have faced throughout evolution.
• Selection has designed these psychological mechanisms to be influenced by specific classes of information from the environment.
• Human psychology consists of a multitude of specialized evolved mechanisms that interact with each other and with external variables to produce adaptive behavior.

These tenets imply that genetic determinism alone cannot explain human behavior, as environmental input is necessary at each stage of development. It is essential to distinguish between underlying psychological mechanisms and manifest behavior. Additionally, social and cultural factors are integral to understanding human behavior. Evolutionary psychology emphasizes the flexibility of human behavior, enabled by a variety of context-dependent evolved psychological adaptations.

What is the relationship between feminism and evolutionary psychology?

The relationship between feminism and evolutionary psychology has historically been complex. Feminist scholars initially showed skepticism towards evolutionary approaches, fearing they could be used to justify gender inequalities. However, some feminist scientists who identified as both feminists and evolutionists fostered a rapprochement between the two fields. More recently, there has been a growing recognition that evolutionary psychology can complement feminist scholarship and contribute to a better understanding of gender dynamics and power relations.

What is Sexual Strategies Theory?

Sexual Strategies Theory proposes that humans have diverse mating strategies, influenced by evolutionary logic and contextual variables. It predicts gender differences in mating behavior, such as men's greater desire for sexual variety. Empirical studies support this hypothesis, showing men's higher interest in short-term mating and more sex partners. Women also benefit from short-term mating, but sex differences in expressed desires for sexual variety exist. Despite skepticism, empirical evidence continues to support these differences. It's important to distinguish between evolved desires and actual behavior, as factors like status influence mating success.

How did beauty standards evolve?

Beauty standards' evolution is debated between social scientists and evolutionary psychologists. Social scientists argue that beauty is a social construct, while evolutionary psychologists propose that it's rooted in observable cues related to fertility and health. Universally valued cues include youthfulness and physical attractiveness, with waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) suggested as an indicator of health and fertility. However, conflicting evidence exists, and the importance of different cues is still under investigation. Despite the evolutionary basis, feminists and evolutionary psychologists agree that the emphasis on physical beauty can harm women, leading to issues like eating disorders and objectification. Feminist perspectives should consider the scientific understanding of attractiveness's evolutionary foundations.

How have women adapted to ovulation?

Ovulation plays a crucial role in women's reproductive biology, providing a short window for conception. While it was once believed to be concealed, recent studies challenge this idea. Men may have adaptations to detect ovulation, as they find certain cues, such as changes in women's voices, body odors, and physical features, more attractive during ovulation. Women may also have adaptations, potentially shifting their mate preferences towards men with markers of good genes. While there is ongoing debate and further research is needed, evolutionary psychology has been instrumental in uncovering these ovulation effects that were previously overlooked. Overall, evidence suggests that ovulation effects exist, but they are likely more complex and context-specific than initially thought.

Why is risk taking appealing in human mating?

Risk-taking is seen as more appealing in short-term mates than in long-term partners, according to Sylwester and Pawlowski (2010). Men's risk-taking behavior signals good genes and potential generosity, aligning with women's short-term mating strategy. Women's risk-taking may signal sexual availability and ease of pursuit. In long-term relationships, high levels of risk-taking are disfavored due to potential risks to survival, stability, and parental investment. The study confirmed that both genders prefer risk-takers in short-term mating. Future research should explore the specific reasons behind women's attraction to risk-taking and examine different social circumstances. These findings imply that men prioritize women as "sex objects" in short-term mating, while women prioritize men as "success objects" for resources and genetic quality. Long-term mating emphasizes consistency and reliability over uncertain resource gains from risk-taking behavior.

How can rape and other forms of sexual victimization be understood?

Vandermassen (2010) suggests that evolutionary and feminist perspectives on the causes of rape can be integrated. Points of convergence include the control of resources and power by men, men's control of women through resources, and the central role of sexuality and reproduction in men's control of women. Vandermassen criticizes evolutionary psychologists for downplaying anger and hostility as motivations for rape, which feminist scholars emphasize. Both sexual and hostile motivations contribute to understanding the causes of rape. Possible causes of male anger and hostility include rejection by women and psychopathy. Vandermassen also critiques Thornhill's work on psychological pain in rape victims. It is important to keep an open mind about the hypothesis of evolved adaptations for sexual coercion. Rape is condemned regardless of its causes. The causes of sexual coercion can be adaptations for rape or byproducts of adaptations in non-rape contexts. The evidence is insufficient to conclude that rape itself is a facultative adaptation in human males. Researchers should continue to investigate the underlying causes of rape for the benefit of victims.

What can evolutionary psychology tell about lesbian mate preferences?

The Smith et al. (2010) study examines partner preferences among butch and femme lesbians and heterosexual individuals. It highlights the diversity of mate preferences within the lesbian community. However, the study's findings do not directly relate to the metatheoretical paradigm of evolutionary psychology or "evolutionary psychology theory." Evolutionary psychology encompasses various hypotheses and predictions about different phenomena. Therefore, testing a specific hypothesis does not validate or invalidate evolutionary psychology as a whole. Furthermore, the mate preferences of lesbian women, including individual differences along the butch and femme dimensions, do not significantly contribute to evolutionary psychology or Sexual Strategies Theory.

The development of healthy romantic relationships and sexuality is a lifelong process that begins with romantic feelings and sexual experimentation early in life. During adolescence and young adulthood, individuals explore these aspects of their lives, and social contexts and interpersonal relationships with parents, peers, and partners play a significant role in shaping their experiences. This special issue aims to advance our understanding of how romantic relationships and sexuality develop in the context of these social domains.

How have perspectives in the field changed?

In the past, romantic relationships and sexual activities of youth were often seen as risky behaviors associated with negative outcomes. However, there has been a shift in perspective towards viewing these experiences as normative tasks in adolescent development. Research has shown that early romantic relationships and sexual activity are prevalent among teenagers in Western countries, indicating their expected behavior patterns.

This change in perspective has led to a focus on understanding how most adolescents develop their romantic relationships and sexuality in a normative way, rather than solely identifying factors that prevent involvement in such relationships. This shift has also allowed for the identification of truly risky versus normative developmental trajectories, leading to a better understanding of young people's educational and healthcare needs.

Furthermore, the ecological perspective highlights the importance of socio-contextual factors in shaping adolescent behaviors and relationships. Research has demonstrated the significant role of parents, peers, and partners in influencing romantic relationships and sexual development. Attachment theory suggests that adolescents' relationships with their parents influence their later relationships with romantic partners. Friendships also play a crucial role in developing skills and expectations for romantic relationships. Additionally, characteristics of romantic partners themselves, such as personality traits and self-esteem, contribute to the quality of adolescents' romantic relationships.

In terms of sexual development, a positive and supportive relationship with parents has been found to be protective and associated with delayed initiation of sexual behavior and safer sexual practices. Peers' sexual norms, especially descriptive norms, have been shown to influence adolescents' own sexual activity. The role of romantic partners in adolescents' sexual behaviors is still an area that requires further research.

Overall, this shift towards a normative perspective and recognition of the importance of social contexts has expanded our understanding of adolescent romantic relationships and sexual development, and has implications for effective education programs and healthcare interventions.

What are the strengths of previous studies in the field?

Previous studies have several strengths that contribute to the literature on romantic and sexual development during adolescence and young adulthood within the social contexts of relationships with parents, peers, and partners.

One significant strength is the advancement of a developmental perspective. These studies cover major developmental stages, from early adolescence to young adulthood, and examine how romantic relationships and sexual behaviors evolve over time. They also investigate the role of age in shaping the influence of socio-contextual factors, revealing that peer approval becomes less important as individuals transition from adolescence to young adulthood.

Another strength is the advancement of an ecological perspective. The studies explore multiple social contexts simultaneously and examine interactions between parents, peers, and partners. By considering how these different relationships interact and influence young people's romantic and sexual experiences, they provide a more comprehensive understanding of the processes involved.

The studies also employ state-of-the-art research methods. Some studies utilize longitudinal designs, allowing researchers to investigate developmental processes over time. Others use innovative techniques such as online questionnaires, daily diary assessments, and observations of dyadic interactions. These methods enhance the accuracy and depth of data collection, particularly for sensitive topics like romantic relationships and sexuality.

Furthermore, the studies adopt a broad conceptualization of sexuality. Rather than focusing solely on heterosexual intercourse, they encompass a range of sexual behaviors and also consider cognitive and emotional aspects of young people's sexuality. This broader approach provides a more comprehensive understanding of emerging sexual activity and the factors influencing it.

Overall, the studies presented in this special issue contribute valuable insights into the developmental and contextual factors shaping romantic and sexual experiences during adolescence and young adulthood. Their strengths lie in their developmental and ecological perspectives, utilization of state-of-the-art research methods, and broad conceptualization of sexuality.

What directions should be followed in future research?

First, there is a need to shift the focus from viewing romantic relationships and sexual behaviors as inherently risky to recognizing their positive aspects. Researchers have started exploring the positive outcomes associated with young people's romantic relationships and sexuality, such as happiness, self-worth, social competence, and support. Further investigation is required to understand how socio-contextual factors contribute to these positive outcomes.

Second, there is a need to consider bidirectional relationships between individuals and contexts. While longitudinal research designs have been employed to understand how social contexts influence romantic and sexual development over time, most studies focus on unidirectional socialization processes. It is essential to recognize that young people not only influenced by social contexts but also select and affect their social environment. Exploring bidirectional relations between social contexts and romantic and sexual development through longitudinal research is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of these processes.

Third, there is a need for more cross-country comparison studies. The majority of existing research on young people's romantic relationships and sexuality has focused on Western developed countries, neglecting the experiences of adolescents from diverse cultural contexts in the "majority world" (for example Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean). Given the cultural variations in norms and values related to romantic relationships and sexuality, it is important to conduct studies in these understudied regions to broaden our understanding.

Lastly, there is a need to bridge the gap between research on romantic relationships and sexuality. Currently, these two fields tend to be studied independently, despite the fact that romantic relationships often serve as the context for adolescents' sexual behaviors. More research is needed to explore how characteristics of romantic relationships or partners are associated with young people's sexual behaviors and their evaluations. Integrating the study of romantic relationships and sexuality will advance both fields of research.

What is this article about?

Many American teenage girls have experienced sexual harassment and nearly a quarter of female college students have been the victim of sexual assault. Despite the negative and long-term consequences of these experiences on their emotional, physical and mental health, perpetrating sexual assault and harassment is usually seen as normative. Very few perpetrators receive punishment. Cases are rarely tried and merely 5% of them result in a conviction. In spite of much media attention on this topic (MeToo) and the Weinstein-trial, there is still significant cultural acceptance of sexual assault and harassment of women.

The tolerance and prevalence of sexual assault and harassment against girls by boys is the expected developmental result of the present cultural context in which boys and girls are socialized. Previous research on this matter concentrated on adolescence and the what, who and where question. Hardly any research was done on how the normative school, family and cultural contexts – in which young kids develop - support acceptance and perpetration of sexual harassment. Policymakers and researcher need to understand how the social contexts of kids might facilitate later sexual harassment.  

In order to review relevant literature and propose factors, the bio-ecological theoretical framework of Bronfenbrenner was used. The proximal contexts of peers, schools and parents and the distal contexts of media content play a crucial role in the prevalence of sexual harassment. The interactions and engagement of children with these contexts shape their development. As kids enter adolescence, these interactions have resulted into behaviors that accept the perpetration of assault and harassment against women.

What is the theoretical framework?

According to Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological systems theory, children interact with their distal and proximal context. These contexts show overlap and interact with one another. The characteristics of an individual child are shaped by their proximal environments (the microsystem): their peers, school and family. Kids are directly influenced by the interactions with their friends, siblings, parents, class mates etc. Kids are also heavily influenced by their (indirect) distal environments (the exosystem), like mass media. These contexts together form a broader culture (the macrosystem). Lastly, the theory argues that children’s developmental and biological processes moderate and inform the impact of the distal and proximal context (the chronosystem).

Sexual harassment: unwelcome sexual behavior, either physical, nonverbal or verbal, that takes place electronically or in person. Examples are touching, joking, gesturing and displaying pictures. The most extreme version is ‘sexual assault’: sexual touching and penetration obtained by incapacitation or force. The prevalence of sexual assault and harassment is partly a consequence of the sexualization of females, which occurs when someone’s value is purely based on sexual appeal, being physical attractive is equated with being sexy, when someone is considered a sexual object or when sexuality is inappropriately imposed upon someone (like a child).

Subjects of sexual objectification are usually females, whereas males are ought to embody ‘hegemonic masculinity’ (strong, aggressive, dominant). This leads to opposite roles of women and men. Following the cultural stereotypes,  men are expected to be sexually promiscuous (the aggressors), while women should behave passively and prioritize the sexual needs of men (the objects). Boys sexually harassing girls is a direct behavioral result of these sexualized gender stereotypes. Therefore, it is important to understand how social contexts influence the development of sexualized gender stereotypes.

Sexual harassment mostly occurs in adolescence. In a national survey among teenagers, almost half of the girls declared having experience with unwanted comments, gestures or jokes, compared with less than a quarter of the boys. They were also more likely to mention being sexually intimidated or forced into sexual things by boys. Boys mentioned being harassed (being called gay for example) by other boys more often than by girls.

Sexual harassment usually occurs between peers, in the presence of a small group and in schools. Many students have witnessed sexual harassment. Sexual harassment is not only conducted in public, but also accepted by other students. Peer group norms heavily influence the degree of toleration. Most did it because so many others do it and they were encouraged by friends.

Sexual harassment is often tolerated and seen as normative by both adults and children. Adolescents think there are hardly any consequences for perpetrators. Peer sexual harassment is usually considered as normal, because it is associated with milestones as dating, puberty and becoming sexually active. Girls also mentioned that the inaction by teachers that witnessed the harassment was equally upsetting. Even though harassment is considered damaging, perpetrators are hardly punished. On the contrary: victims are frequently the ones being (socially) punished for reporting the harassment, whereas popular perpetrators are still liked.

Three crucial microsystems of children contribute to the high incidence of sexual harassment: peers, schools and parents. Parents emphasize gender as a functional category and binary, which worsens the gender stereotypes. They teach daughters to be passive and put effort in their appearance, and sons to be aggressive. Peers exacerbate gender differences by segregating themselves by gender. Schools reinforce the differences between boys and girls, and do not intervene when sexual harassment starts.

The exosystem also has a big influence on development. In particular toys and media targeted at kids focus on gender differences, promote girls’ sexualization and boys’ aggression, and offer easy access to violent and sexist pornography. Children have an active role in choosing, influencing and engaging these distal and proximal processes.

What is the role of the parents?

Parents provide the most important and first context in shaping the early development of children. They are responsible for teaching and emphasizing on the gender differences and stereotypes straight from the birth. They shape their kids’ development by a functional use of gender, through the emotional and behavioral socialization of their children, sexualization and an appearance-focus.

Most parents focus on stereotypical, binary differences between girls and boys, resulting into the development of stereotypes. Kids try to comprehend how their world is (socially) categorized. They consider the categories referring to gender important, because their parents use them in a functional way: to label, categorize and sort people. The salience of the kids’ gender is increased by their names, clothes, bedroom, hairdo, toys and colors. Kids often hear gender categories through labeling (“See that woman there? You are such a good boy!”). It directs their attention to gender as a category. Eventually, they develop stereotypes about each category.

Parents are responsible for socializing their kids’ behavioral and emotional expressions. They promote passive and submissive behavior in daughters, and aggressive and angry behavior in sons. Parents tend to pay more attention to submissive emotions (anxiety, sadness) of girls and are more likely to tolerate aggressive behavior by boys. They also seem to use more psychical control with sons. These gender differences are maintained over time: boys in middle childhood display more physical aggression.

The appearance-focus is expressed by dressing girls in pink clothes and accessories. Young girls ask if they look pretty or complain about their hair. The focus on appearance can lead to sexualization. Young girls want to look like their barbie doll or popular girls and starting wearing make-up and tight clothes. While appearance-focused behavior is mostly influenced by peers, the mother's behavior can also be the reason, and the parents of sexualized young girls allow and purchase their clothing, make-up and toys. Boys usually receive aggression-focused toys.

By the end of early childhood, kids have been socialized according to their gender, understand what behavior is appropriate for boys and girls and have constructed gender stereotypes. Girls have been encouraged to look pretty and be submissive, while aggressive behavior by boys has been accepted. This early developments have implications for later bullying and eventually sexual harassment.

What is the role of peers?

The peer group directly shapes the development of children. Some argue that peers have more influence on preferences, activities and behaviors than parents. Most children and teenagers behave in accordance with the norms of their peers. As soon as children start school, gender differences become more exaggerated due to the pressure of being in peer groups.

Children in early childhood tend to play with peers of the same sex. Girls and boys segregate themselves, partly due to early gender differences in play styles and interests. Segregation is also the result of the belief that girls are more similar to girls and vice versa, which makes them want to interact more with children of the same sex. As they spend so much time playing together, the gender socialization of themselves increases and the initial small differences exacerbate. Playing in peer groups influences kids by further enhancing their stereotypical preferences and skills. Gender segregation also limits the quality and amount of cross-gender interactions. Cross-group contact is an effective strategy for enhancing positive intergroup interactions and attitudes. It creates the feeling of familiarity with peers from another group and fosters friendships. Gender segregation maintains gender stereotypes and uncomfortable interactions.

During middle childhood, it becomes more important for children to conform to peer norms. Girls and boys have a preference for behaviors and appearances that are typical for a gender. Peers that behave very gender-typical are seen as more popular and having a higher social status. Peers describe popular girls as nice and pretty, and popular boys as strong and liked by girls. Hegemonic masculinity puts more pressure on boys to conform to gender norms. Many boys feel pressured to be aggressive, athletic and dominant (macho). This pressure is still present during adolescence. Conformity to gender norms for girls means being sexualized. Children, especially girls, perceive sexualized girls to be more popular and having a high social status. Children – especially boys - that do not conform to gender norms are more likely to be bullied or harassed. Boys are more pressured by parents and peers to conform to gender norms and are treated worse when they don’t. Boys that show too little (sexual) attraction to girls are likely to face homophobic harassment.

Gender segregation and limited cross-gender interactions during childhood might result into later sexual harassment. When puberty hits, adolescents start wanting to interact with peers of the other gender, but due to a lack a (romantic) skills, sexual harassment happens. Adolescent boys maintain or gain a high social status by engaging in sexual harassment, and adolescent girls by being sexually objectified. Boys see sexual harassment as a way of proving their popularity and heterosexuality. Having a central place in the group makes a boy more likely to perpetrate sexual harassment. The interaction within boy-groups is also relevant. Conversations with badly behaving peers and laughing at it is associated with bad behavior later on.

What is the role of schools?

Schools heavily influence the lives of children in early childhood. They indirectly foster the acceptance of sexual harassment by emphasizing the functional use of gender (just like parents) and categorizing kids based on gender, which reinforces the gender stereotypes. School and teachers directly foster the acceptance of sexual harassment through a lack of education and policies.

Teachers often use gender labels verbally (“welcome boys and girls”) and in the organization of classrooms (separate activities and boards). Extracurricular activities and physical education (sports teams with only boys) are also often gender segregated. The functional use of gender and the segregation of kids further restricts cross-group interaction and the possibility to build cross-gender friendships. Lastly, the school structure can influence the salience of gender as a category (mixed or single-gender schools).

Sexual harassment increases when children start middle school. Despite this increase, teachers usually ignore it. This may partly be due to a misunderstanding of sexual harassment between peers, and a lack of training and education on recognizing and dealing with it. More than half of the girls reported not telling anyone, because it would make no difference. Paying no or not enough attention to sexual harassment also occurs at a structural level, as it is not covered in sexual education. Many children are not taught about consent. Even when school policies address sexual harassment, they are often not used.

School structures and teachers foster a social context in which the gender stereotypes are exacerbated. Research indicates that supportive policies and interventions by teachers can make a difference. 

What is the role of children’s toys, marketing and media?

The acceptance of sexual harassment is further reinforced by marketing and media. Media targeted at infants encourage the sexualization of girls and aggressive, sex-focused behavior by boys. Their influence fosters (sexualized) gender stereotypes, which leads to the acceptance and perpetration of sexual harassment. The easy access to violent and sexist pornography from a young age normalizes the acceptance even further.

Television shows, magazines, movies, videos and games portray females as sexualized. Popular shows for kids involve the objectification of girls by boys and self-objectification by girls. Sports media sexualize female athletes. Toys for girls focus on beauty. Gay or feminine boys in television programs are usually joked about. A longitudinal study showed that watching mainstream television caused women to be seen as sex objects and men as sexually dominant.

Media focus on aggressive behavior in boys: male characters in TV shows are often behaving badly. Popular sports programs reinforce violence and aggression. Toys as weapons and action figures are exclusively marketed for boys. In addition to the marketing of boys, parents are more likely to buy gender-typical toys for their children.

Research shows that boys who consumed more sexually explicit media perpetrated more sexual harassment later in life than their peers. Adolescent boys who played video games with sexualized female characters displayed more tolerance and acceptance of sexual misbehavior.

What do the authors propose?

he proposed theoretical model emphasized a number of important implications for policymakers, teachers, parents and researchers.

• Policymakers: easily obtained and enforced school policies should directly express intolerance of sexual harassment between peers. Sexual education needs to cover consent and sexual harassment. Policies and practices should be focused on elementary, middle and high school teachers. This includes reducing the use of gender as a functional category, segregation by gender and no longer considering gender exclusively as a binary.
• Teachers: same as for policymakers and they need training about the consequences of harassment and interventions.
• Parents: a reduced use of gender as a category, encouraging kids to join mixed gender peer groups, pay more attention to the toys they buy and the media they let their kids consume. Teach children to be critical, discuss media content and monitor their access to sexualized media.
• Researchers: future research should focus on the interaction between the contexts (peers, media, parents, schools) and with the child’s characteristics. It also needs to be investigated how individual differences in kids moderate their responses to school and parent effects, what the possible predictors of sexual harassment in early childhood are, how middle school norms of sexual harassment could predict perpetration of harassment in high school, what barriers teachers encounter regarding intervening and how interventions in early childhood should be targeted.

Why is sexuality education important for young people?

Sexuality is a central aspect of being human. It encompasses sexual behaviors, sexual orientations, eroticism, gender identities and reproduction. Adolescents want to learn about sex and have a right to accurate information. It is crucial to their development of identity, morality and the capacity of intimacy. Parents and peers play a socializing role, but they are not always the best at meeting the needs of the young people when it comes to sexuality education. That is why states and schools need to take this responsibility.

What is comprehensive sexuality education?

UNESCO defines comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) as a curriculum-based process of teaching and learning about the cognitive, emotional, physical and social aspects of sexuality. Its goals are to provide young people with knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that empower them to realize their health, well-being and dignity, develop respectful social and sexual relationships, and ensure the protection of their rights. A distinction can be made between conventional health-based CSE and rights-based empowerment CSE.

What is conventional health-based CSE?

Conventional health-based CSE provides curriculum-based, scientifically appropriate information on reproductive and sexual physiology and contraceptive and protective methods. Its main goal is to prevent sexual risks and other negative outcomes, such as sexually transmitted infections, HIV infections, and unplanned pregnancies. It promotes all available strategies to sexual prevention, including abstinence, safe sexual practices and the use of condoms.

What theory underpins conventional CSE?

Conventional CSE is theoretically driven by behavior change theory. It emphasizes social norms and values, attitudes, relationships and social skills as determinants of sexual health behavior.

What is rights-based empowerment CSE?

Empowerment CSE is about advancing young people´s knowledge, attitudes, and skills supportive of making informed sexual choices and of building safe and respectful relationships. It includes awareness of cultural, ideological, political and religious contexts and of the ways these contexts affect people´s sexual choices, behaviors, and relationships. It promotes sex positive values, such as mutual respect, human sexual rights, and gender equality.

What are the goals of empowerment CSE?

Empowerment CSE aims to contribute to societal transformation and to strengthen young peoples´ roles in these processes. One of its main learning objectives is to give young people the capacity of critical reflection and successful navigation of normative contexts. It tries to teach sex cultural intelligence, media-literacy and help-seeking skills. It encourages non-sexist attitudes and behaviors and empowers young people to achieve safe, consensual, egalitarian relationships and gender equality.

What are the eight concepts that are key to empowerment CSE?

Eight concepts are important to CSE curricula: 1) relationships, 2) values, rights, culture and sexuality, 3) violence and staying safe, 4) understanding gender, 5) the human body and development, 6) skills for health and well-being, 7) sexual and reproductive health, and 8) sexuality and sexual behavior.

What factors are important for successful delivery of empowerment CSE?

• It needs to be age and developmentally appropriate. It needs to be responsive to the changing needs and capabilities of young people and address developmentally relevant topics in a timely, diversity accommodating fashion.
• It needs to engage learning in a continuing educational process that starts at an early age and builds new information upon previous learning.
• It needs to be learned-centered and adjusted to the concerns, realities, interests, suggestions and resistance of young people.
• It needs to involve active participation of students so they become capable of making their own decisions.
• Teachers need to facilitate empowerment and not just teach content, regulate behavior or improve knowledge.

According to scientific results, what are the positive consequences of good quality CSE?

Good quality CSE has many positive results:

• Young people develop accurate and age-appropriate sexual knowledge, attitudes, skills, intentions and behaviors that contribute to safe, healthy and positive relationships.
• It provides young people with information about their bodies and sexuality.
• It reduces misinformation, shame and anxiety.
• It clarifies and solidifies positive attitudes and perceptions.
• It increased communication.
• It improves young people's overall sexual agency and abilities to make safe and informed choices about their sexual and reproductive health.
• It delays young people´s debut of sexual intercourse.
• It reduces the frequency of unprotected sex.
• It increases the utilization of sexual and reproductive health services and contraceptives.

Which factors are important for successful empowerment CSE?

Four factors can be identified:

• A comprehensive program content.
• An adequate delivery and implementation of the CSE.
• An enabling environment.
• The use of multicomponent approaches.

How can a good comprehensive program content be created?

With regards to program content, it is important that recommended procedures are followed. This includes using a logic model, involving young people, assessing local needs and testing the program. Other aspects that are important are giving clear messages and focusing on risks that can be changed and situations that may lead to unsafe sex. Meanwhile, personal values, norms and perceptions need to be addressed and self-efficacy needs to be enhanced. Finally, gender and power should be explicitly addressed by fostering personal reflection and critical thinking.

What can cause a well developed CSE program not to be implemented or delivered well?

Several factors can be identified that may stand in the way of a good implementation of a CSE program. They can be divided into three categories, namely factors related to students, teachers and school contexts. For example, students may not be able to attend lessons, teachers may skip too controversial messages and schools may be unable to provide materials or effective lesson plans.

What role do teachers´ skills and norms play with regards to adequate delivery of CSE?

Positive effects of CSE are largely due to the motivation, attitudes and skills of teachers and their ability to employ participatory teaching techniques. Many teachers struggle to come to terms with teaching CSE and their dominant socio-cultural and religious norms. The CSE program may be conflicting with the teachers´ norms and identity. Teachers may inadvertently strengthen traditional gender norms rather than transform them. Finally, pupils and teachers may feel embarrassed and uncomfortable discussing sexuality.

How can the (school) environment enable a good implementation of a CSE program?

Sexuality education should be structurally embedded in the official curriculum and not be provided in after-school hours with little organizational support. There should be positive messages and no gender and status power differences between teachers and learners and risks of harassment, exploitation and violence against and among students should be minimized.

What are multicomponent approaches?

Multicomponent approaches bring actions together to improve individual empowerment, strengthen the health system and create a more supportive environment for good CSE. They are more sustainable than single-component interventions, because they also cause change in social and cultural factors. One example is an ecological framework than enables the environment at different levels:

• The individual level (e.g. by empowering girls and creating safe spaces).
• The relationship level (e.g. by building parental support and peer support networks).
• The community level (e.g. by transforming gender and social norms).
• The societal level (e.g. by promoting laws and policies that protect and promote human rights).

What are aspects with regards to successful CSE programs that need attention?

CSE requires constant innovation and needs to be continuously adapted to new insights, societal development and shifting conditions. It is always a work in progress, but two areas are identified that need extra attention:

• The transformative goals of CSE may be unsettling to some and they consider them threatening to gender norms, family values and the status quo. Particularly sexual rights and same-sex sexual relationships remain extremely controversial. This causes opposition to CSE to remain very strong in many countries.
• Difficulties with international cooperation. Certain factors make international cooperation very difficult, including colonial histories, positions in the global economy and the nature of economic funding. Countries tend to impose their values on other countries which often leads to frustration and resistance to a rights-based CSE approach.