5. How does persuasion work?

What are "rhetorical devices"?

Words can have a lot of persuasiveness ("rhetorical force / emotive meaning"). They can evoke images, feelings and emotions in us. Good and persuasive speakers apply a number of techniques that appeal to and convince us through rhetoric.

Rhetoric is about the research into convincing writing. For example, we can write a piece in a variety of ways, and we can either make sure that Hamas members portrayed as freedom fighters or we portray them as terrorists. There is of course nothing wrong with someone trying to convince others of something. However, it is important to think critically and therefore to distinguish between arguments and rhetoric. Rhetoric should not add anything to the credibility of a statement, because rhetoric is not about substantive arguments. In rhetoric, rhetorical devices are often used. These are methods of persuasion that are sometimes used through rhetoric.

What types of rhetorical methods are there?

Rhetoric methods can be divided into different groups of methods. The first group usually consists of a few words or short sentences that are either positive or negative. These are also called "slanters". Examples are euphemisms, dysphemism and weaselers. The second group of methods is dependent on unlawful assumptions. Examples are stereotypes, innuendo and loaded questions. The third group consists of methods that deal with humour. Group 4 consists of methods that use definitions, explanations and analogies. Examples are rhetorical analogies and rhetorical definitions.

Rhetoric methods I

Euphemisms and dysphemism

A euphemism is used to express something as positive or neutral instead of negative. An example is that the owner of a store selling second-hand clothing is talking about "clothing with a history" instead of clothing that someone else has been walking around in many times. A dysphemism is the opposite of a euphemism. A dysphemism is therefore used to evoke a negative feeling in someone. "Freedom fighter" is a euphemism, while terms such as "rebel" and "terrorist" are dysphemisms.

Weaselers

A "weaseler" is a linguistic method with which you can cover up a problem or subject. For example, it is used by adding it to a statement and it ensures that the claim cannot be criticized.

An example is a commercial about chewing gum without sugar. The commercial claims that three out of four dentists from a study recommend to customers who use chewing gum to use chewing gum without sugar. Two "weaselers" are used in such a sentence. The first weaseler is "the dentists from the study". Which research? Have these dentists been chosen randomly, or did they already have a positive attitude towards chewing gum without sugar? The second weaseler is "to customers who use chewing gum". The commercial does not claim that the dentists think that chewing gum without sugar is good for the teeth. It is only said that chewing gum without sugar is recommended to people who already use chewing gum. It is, as it were, a way out for the writer - if there is criticism, the writer can immediately claim that nothing has been said about the benefit for the teeth, in this example.

Downplayers

"Downplaying" is a method to make something or someone seem less important. Stereotypes, rhetorical comparisons, rhetorical explanations and innuendo can all be used to make something or someone seem less important. An example is: "Don't mind what teacher X says, he is just a socialist." "just" is a downplayer in this example. Quotation marks are often also used as downplayers as well. Example; "She has obtained her "degree" online." The fact that the term degree is enclosed in quotation marks reduces the value attached to it.

Rhetoric methods II

Stereotypes

A stereotype is a judgment about a group of people that is based on little or no evidence. It is a way of generalizing. Examples are: "Women are emotional", "men are insensitive" and "lesbians hate men." Stereotypes can both be positive or negative, which often depends on the point of view of the person expressing the stereotype. Positive stereotypes can be used to disguise something negative and a negative stereotype can be used to downplay a good achievement someone has accomplished.

Innuendo

With an innuendo someone wants to push a point across without explicitly mentioning it. This is possible with a word choice that insinuates something unspoken.

Example:

Jack: Did Sophie tell the truth?

Thomas: Yes, this time.

In this case, Thomas does not say outright that Sophie lies a lot at other times, but he did imply it. From his word choice, we can understand that he doesn’t have much faith in Sophie’s truth-telling abilities.

 Paralipsis ("significant mention") and loaded questions are two forms of innuendo.

• Paralipsis is a comment that otherwise would not have had to be made, or something someone would never say this directly in any other scenario. For example, someone may say, "Ladies and gentlemen, I am living proof that there is at least one candidate in the game who is not addicted." We immediately think that other candidates might have an addiction, while that may not even be the case. We think that the other candidates do have an addiction, because we cannot imagine that someone would make such a remark if other people in the game were not addicted.
• A loaded question is based on assumptions that are not necessarily correct. If you hear that A says to B, "Have you always liked gambling?" You immediately assume that B has always liked gambling. Another example is when someone asks the following: "Have you stopped beating your wife?" This question is based on the assumption that someone in the past sometimes beat his or her wife. If there is no reason to believe this assumption, then this is a loaded question.

Rhetoric methods III

Sarcasm / ridicule

We speak of sarcasm or the "horse laugh" when someone tries to ridicule an event or a person by, for example, laughing at it.

Hyperbole

A hyperbole is when something is explicitly exaggerated. An example is that for strict parents the term "fascists" is used, or that the argument between two people is described as "the third world war" that breaks out. A hyperbole is often incorporated into a dysphemism, a horse laugh or a rhetorical comparison.

Rhetoric methods IV

Rhetorical analogies

Rhetoric analogies occur when two things are compared, so that one of those things will look better or worse. When assessing comparisons, it is important to consider the following questions:

1. Has all the information that matters been told?
2. Is the same measure used to compare two things?
3. Are the things being compared really comparable?
4. Are two things compared in terms of averages?

You must always ask yourself, with analogies, whether the comparison is logical and why someone would compare these particular things with each other. Analogies are super subjective, if one compares a cat with a mouse, the cat seems very dangerous, if one then compares a cat with a tiger, the cat seems very sweet. It is very easy to be misled by an analogy.

Rhetoric definitions and rhetorical statements

Normal definitions are provided to clarify the meaning of words. Rhetoric definitions are emotion-focused and try to provoke a certain attitude. An example is defining abortion as the murder of an unborn child. Rhetoric explanations are statements that try to evoke certain emotions.

What are the exceptions?

Proof replacements

A proof substitute ("proof surrogate") exists when someone says that a claim has been made by an authority or an expert, while this claim is not specifically quoted. In result, it remains unclear exactly where the claim comes from. Examples of this are; "A respected source tells," or "experts say that."

Repetition

The technique of repetition, in which the same point is simply made all the time, is used worldwide. This method makes us believe what is being told, simply because we have heard it so many times that we start accepting it as true.

How does persuasion through visual images work?

By using all kinds of computer programs it is now possible to change photos big time. By manipulating facial expressions and lighting on photos, these can evoke certain feelings. Misleading images and photos can be the result of the following:

• • Intentionally actually changing images physically
  • Use of specific visual angles when taking photos, so that photos are interpreted in a different way.
  • Select images from movies. This ensures that images are taken out of their original context.
  • Use images that were only made with the computer and are therefore not based on true images.

What are demagogues?

"Demagogues" use an extreme form of rhetoric to spread false ideas and to gain power over people. Four rhetorical techniques that are used for this are;

1. Otherizing - dividing people into "us" and "them." By placing someone in the out-group you create conflict and distrust.
2. Demonizing - the intention to place a certain person in a negative way so that people start to hate him or her.
3. Strengthening xenophobia - xenophobia is the fear of anything unknown or strange, such as foreigners.
4. Fear and hate mongering - to strengthen the fear of a certain audience. People who use this technique respond to an existing fear and emphasize it extremely.

Practice questions

1. What is rhetoric?
2. In which groups can rhetorical methods be subdivided?
3. What is the difference between a euphemism and a dysphemism?
4. What are demagogues?
5. Name four techniques that use demagogues.

Answers practice questions

1. Rhetoric is about research into convincing writing.
2. Rhetoric methods can be divided into four groups. The first group usually consists of single words or short phrases that are positive or negative; called slanters. The second group of methods are dependent on unlawful assumptions. The third group consists of methods that deal with humor. Group 4 consists of methods that use definitions, explanations and analogies.
3. A euphemism is used to express something as positive or neutral instead of negative. A dysphemism is the opposite of a euphemism and is therefore used to evoke a negative feeling in someone.
4. Demagogues "use an extreme form of rhetoric to spread false ideas and to gain power over people.
5. Four techniques that use demagogues are otherizing, demonizing, reinforcing xenophobia and fear and hate mongering.