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What topics are discussed?DepressionTo receive a diagnosis of depression 5 (or more) of the following symptoms have been present during the same two-week period and represent a change from previous functioning. At least one of the symptoms is either 1 or two.Depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day. (Note: In children and adolescents, can be irritable mood.) Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all, activities most of the day, nearly every day. Significant weight loss when not dieting or weight gain/decrease or increase in appetite nearly every day. (Note: In children, consider failure to make weight gain.) Insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day. Psychomotor agitation or retardation nearly every day. Fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day. Feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt (which may be delusional) nearly every day (not merely self reproach or guilt about being sick). Diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness, nearly every day.Recurrent thoughts of death, recurrent suicidal ideation without a specific plan, or a suicide attempt or a specific plan for committing suicide. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. The episode is not attributable to a substance (e.g. alcohol, drugs, medication) or to another medical condition. Mood disorder: the mood spectrumWithin mood disorders there are multiple different levels/dimensions of mood disorders. These and their characteristics will be explained.First, there are two types of depression which can be distinguished.A unipolar depression is characterised by just depression. Two types of unipolar depression are major depressive disorder (shorter amount of time, at least two weeks, but very severe) and dysthymic depression/persistent depressive disorder (longer amount of time, at least two years).A bipolar disorder...
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What topics are discussed?
What is a mental/emotional/behavioural disorder?
It is thought that a behavioural disorder has its origin in the brain. However, the brain is the most complex thing we try to understand, and it is hard to interpret how exactly it works, due to a thick skull which is hard to get through. A behavioural disorder can be seen as a behavioural syndrome. A syndrome is operationalised in terms of a diagnosis and covers a pre-defined set of symptoms. These symptoms should cause impairment in functioning or noticeable stress, to the person or to others. A disorder is not a yes/no thing, but it depends on the dimension of the symptoms. Besides, disorders are hard to distinguish from one another, and it comes with comorbidity too.
The uncubus phenomenon
The uncubus phenomenon is a hypnopompic experience. It is also known as sleep paralysis. It occurs when you’re in-between sleeping and being awake. You have the feeling you cannot move and you have difficulty breathing. You sense presence and you feel like someone or something is sitting on your chest, which causes trouble breathing. This is actually because during your sleep your muscles are paralyzed, so are your muscles which control your breathing. It is probably a (REM-)sleep disorder. You wake up at the wrong time in the middle of the night, during your REM-sleep. The body is paralyzed and the brain is very active. Your brain wants to make sense of what’s going on, which causes stress and impairment because you cannot move. It is discussed whether this would be considered a behavioural disorder.
Who makes changes into severe psychopathology?
Why does one develop a behavioural disorder, meanwhile someone else doesn’t? By what mechanism does this work? It is unclear what mechanism works between two events. Two examples are given. When one has experienced emotional abuse, this person is two to three times more likely to report bulimia or anorexia nervosa. Being a refugee, it is two to three times more likely to develop anxiety, depression or PTSD. For example, it could be the stress that comes with moving to a different environment when you’re a refugee. Other factors play a role as well, for example genetic factors.
Substance use disorder
Substance use, for example alcohol or drugs, causes impairment in functioning or noticeable stress. Two to three symptoms is considered as a mild substance use disorder. Four to five symptoms are considered as a moderate substance use disorder. A severe substance use disorder is when someone shows more than five symptoms.
Classification systems (DSM V and ICD 10)
These classification systems are not universally accepted and it is important to know that these were not intended to be valid, but to be reliable. You can achieve reliability by (mostly) counting behavioural symptoms.
What topics are discussed which aren’t discussed in
.....read moreWhat topics are discussed?
Phobias
A lot of phobias make sense from an evolutionary perspective. Being afraid of snakes meanwhile you have never had an encounter with a snake could be due to ancestors having to deal with dangerous snakes. Many people with phobias choose to live with their symptoms rather than seeking treatment. This is because they don’t realise they are having irrational thoughts, or because they are embarrassed. Phobias are very treatable if done properly. Exposure treatment is an effective treatment. however, people fear those because they don’t want to be exposed.
Conclusions to start with
- Understanding the nature of anxiety disorders is vital to evidence-based and effective treatment. It starts with a thorough understanding of the conditioning theory. If you don’t understand the conditioning theory you might not be able to perform an effective treatment.
- The search for new treatments continues because of incomplete response to existing treatment, relapses, and problems with acceptability of treatment.
- In general, new treatments are being implemented fast, with little attention to potential adverse effects.
Mowrer’s theory of fear and avoidance
According to Mowrer’s theory of fear and avoidance, acquisition of fear is done via classical conditioning. There must have been an incident in which the person has experienced fear. Avoidance would be reinforced by operant conditioning, which reduces anxiety. People avoid situations that they associate with their phobia. Avoiding these situations immediately reduces anxiety/fear. This theory describes that fear generates search for safety. Fear is considered a balance between signals of threat and signals of safety. If someone is fearful for birds, that person may be so generalised that he or she might not be able to drive or go outside, unless there is someone’s with him or her who can scare away birds. This is a signal of safety.
Video 1
A video is shown in which a woman has a phobia of birds. She is shown a feather. Her heart beat goes up, she shows avoidance behaviour. As a clinician, there is no such thing as an irrational fear. You have to change the irrational fear into a rational one.
Early versions of behaviour therapy for anxiety disorders
Behaviour therapy for anxiety disorders is based on the habitation model. For example, you can induce fear by unexpectedly playing a noise sound. Then the person will startle, but if you play them the sound multiple times after that, their response will be less. When you confront someone you basically wait for the fear to die out.
As a clinician, you have to teach people that the physiological response is antagonistic to anxiety. You help people control their fears and responses. This is done by e.g. meditation and breathing techniques. These will help someone get through the exposure.
Another way to treat anxiety disorders is to work your way through an ‘anxiety hierarchy’.
What topics are discussed?
Clusters
This topic has not been discussed in the lecture. However, it can be convenient to have a quick summary about the clusters and the different types of personality disorders. Therefore the other topics which were discussed in the lecture and literature are easier to understand.
Cluster A: strange behaviour
- Paranoid: not trusting others, extern attribution bias (blaming others for own failures), easily getting jealous, resulting in problems at work and in relationships, they often seem professional and efficient and are proud they can handle everything rationally/without emotions
- Schizoid: flat, superficial behaviour, not feeling pleasure, not feeling anything like mood swings (although they can experience depression), not understanding how/why they feel the way they feel
- Schizotypal: strange, eccentric, and creative behaviour, feeling like they cannot fit into society, often psychotic features, they want to be in contact with others, but they are very frightened to do so
General characteristics: social aversion, failure to form relationships, poor self-awareness and empathic ability, (relative) indifference to these abilities.
Cluster B: dramatic
- Antisocial: not caring about emotions and rights of others, rationalising own destructive behaviour, lying, often raised in an instable family with lack of parental care, sometimes referred to as sociopaths or psychopaths
- Borderline: instability with moods, relationships, impulsivity which leads to reckless behaviour, self-mutilation, suicide attempts, fear of being abandoned
- Histrionic: constantly seeking attention, paying attention to how others judge and perceive them, inappropriate, seductive or sexual provocative behaviour
- Narcissistic: not interested in others, strong desire to be admired by others, overestimation of their own qualities, easily jealous of others and having the idea that others are jealous of them, not good at taking criticism
Cluster C: anxious
- Avoidant: low self-esteem, extremely shy, sensitive to criticism, anxious and avoiding risks, caused by neglect, abuse, being bullied
- Dependent: extremely dependent on partner, parents or friends, makes others make important decisions, fear of being abandoned, often suicidal
- Obsessive-compulsive: strong desire to have everything neat and organised, perfectionist, often superficial relationships with others, strong comorbidity with Asperger and eating disorders
Stigma
There is a stigma around personality disorders. A personality disorder is difficult to treat and it is difficult to deal with in life. Some people think a personality disorder is just bad behaviour instead of a real disorder and that those people just have to change their behaviour. There’s especially a high stigma around those with borderline disorder. For patients themselves there is also a stigma. They often have a low self-esteem as they cannot maintain relationships with others and such. There is also a stigma around care givers, because of the patients’ symptoms they cannot have relationships and they have a hard time when it comes to work.
Reasons to pay more attention to PD
There are multiple reasons why there
What topics are discussed?
Classification psychoactive substances
There are three classifications of psychoactive substances. First, there are sedatives. Examples of these are opiates, barbiturates, GHB, alcohol and laughing gas. They give a relaxed and euphoric feeling. They are very strong and therefore an overdose is a high risk. Stimulants can be for example cocaine, oat, nicotine and caffeine. Cocaine when snorted has a different effect than when it is smoked (crack). Hallucinogens are psychedelic drugs and when snorted in a high dose it can have a dissociative effect. People become energetic, euphoric and empathetic when using hallucinogens. They can also be psilocybin (changes in perceptions). Hallucinogens make you ‘high’ or ‘stoned’ and mostly give a relaxing effect. Examples of hallucinogens are LSD, ketamine, XTC, mushrooms and cannabis.
DSM IV criteria abuse and dependence
The DSM IV made a distinction between abuse and dependence and these were criteria to be diagnosed with a substance use disorder.
Abuse is described as a maladaptive pattern of use, with significant impairment or distress, as manifested by at least one criterion within a 12 month period:
- Failure to fulfil major role obligations as a result of use
- Recurrent use in physically hazardous situations
- Recurrent use-related legal problems
- Continued use despite persistent social problems caused by use
Dependence is describe as a maladaptive pattern of use, with significant impairment or distress, as manifested by at least three criteria within a 12 month period:
- Tolerance (having to use more every time to get the same effect(s))
- Withdrawal / use to avoid withdrawal
- Use in larger amounts / over longer period than intended
- Persistent desire / failed efforts to cut down or control use
- Much time spent in activities to obtain, use, or recover from effects of use
- Important social or occupational activities given up or reduced because of use
- Continued use despite physical or psychological problems caused by use
This distinction was used in the DSM IV until 2013.
‘Abuse’ is considered to be a mild form or preliminary stage of dependence, but the distinction is insufficiently valid. Dependence is often not preceded by abuse. Besides, many dependent individuals do not meet the criteria for abuse (diagnostic orphans). Many abuse diagnoses are based on one criterion: use-related legal problems, like drunk driving. Psychometric research strongly suggest one-dimensional structure of combined abuse and dependence criteria.
In the transition to DSM V the distinction between abuse and dependence has been removed. The abuse-criterion concern legal problem has been removed too and craving has been added as a criterion. In the DSM V there are 11 criteria, with a diagnostic threshold of at least two criteria.
Substance use and treatment in the Netherlands
Half of all people who seek treatment/help are related to
What topics are discussed?
Somatic symptoms
90% of the general population has at least one symptom per two weeks. Most symptoms are found to be not pathological. One in 40 symptoms leads to consultation of a general practitioner. This usually happens when the symptoms are of longer duration, the symptoms are aggravated, or when people are worried about the meaning of their symptoms. In 16-74% of the consultations, no explanation of the symptoms is found. This is because many symptoms can have my causes. Most people only experience symptoms for a couple of days or weeks, meanwhile in most psychiatric disorders you have to experience symptoms for some months. After medical consultation, 63-75% of the patients recover. The prevalence at the GP for somatic symptom disorder is 15.7%. The total amount of anxiety disorders is 5.5% and the total amount of depression disorders is 4.1%.
SOLK stands for Somatisch Onvoldoende Lichamelijke Klachten (insufficient physical somatic symptoms). The working hypothesis for SOLK is that somatic symptoms exist during some weeks and the symptoms are not explained by appropriate medical examination. Somatic and mental pathology are ruled out on the basis of a legitimate assumption. However, there is some criticism. For example, the time period given is quite vague (‘some weeks’), and there can be an appropriate medical examination.
About 15% of the somatic symptoms is due to somatic insufficiently explained fatigue. Somatic symptoms are said to be pathological if it lasts longer than 6 months, if the symptoms are significantly distressing, and if the symptoms are significantly disrupting daily life.
DSM V criteria
Somatic symptoms are persistent (6 months or longer).
Related disorders
Psychological factors affect other medical conditions. There are other disorders which are related to somatic symptom disorders, but there are some differences. Fears of treatment contribute to mortality or morbidity.
In Illness Anxiety Disorder, the anxiety comes first, instead of the somatic symptoms. There is a strong belief that they have a serious, life threatening illness and they worry about their health. However, there are no or only mild symptoms.
In conversion/functional neurological symptom disorder, the physical symptoms make it look like a neurological conditions. There are symptoms which affect one’s perceptions, sensations, and movement, but these are not due to a disorder. An example of what can happen is when a leg gets paralysed as a result of major stress.
In a factitious disorder, patients intentionally fabricate psychological symptoms to assume the role of patient. It is not the
.....read moreWhat topics are discussed?
Anorexia Nervosa: DSM V criteria
There are two types of AN: the restrictive type (not eating, eating very little), and binge/purging type, in which one first eats and then purges. However, these binges are not as big as in other disorders.
Bulimia Nervosa: DSM V criteria
The main difference between BN and AN is that those with BN usually have a normal body weight.
Video
A video is shown. The woman in this video tells how eating disorders have a biological basis. Eating disorders have the highest death rate of all mental disorders and therefore it is important to pay attention to it. She explains how food plays a role in one’s thoughts and behaviours. Whereas healthy people feel calm and relaxed when eating, people with an eating disorder, e.g. AN or BN, feel high anxiety and severe disturbance when they eat.
Other specified feeding and eating disorder (OFSED)
This disorder was first called eating disorder not otherwise specified (EDNOS) in the DSM IV. In OFSED, most patients have characteristics of all ED subtypes. OFSED is the most prevalent eating disorder, as 75% of the people with an eating disorder suffer from OFSED.
It is important to note that diagnoses of eating disorders are not static. There is migration between the subtypes and there is a lot overlap. It can happen that when one has recovered from AN they later on develop signs of BN. Eating disorders like Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, and Binge-Eating Disorder (BED) have over-evaluation of body weight and shape in common.
Dieting and fear of weight gain in the population
In the general population, between 21% and 66% of the women fear weight gain, a large proportion being 13 years old or 50 years or older. This is for 6-25% of men. In a study conducted about the Dutch population, 7.4% of women have been on a diet. The majority of women is somewhat afraid of gaining weight, whereas 8.9% is very afraid of gaining weight. 1.2% of men have been on a diet and the majority is not afraid of gaining weight. 1.5% is very afraid of gaining weight.
Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID): DSM V criteria
It is important to note that in ARFID there is no body image disturbance or fear of weight gain. It is about avoiding food intake. There are three types of avoidance: sensory based avoidance, arousal or interest based avoidance, and concern
.....read moreThe term psychosis
This term was first used by Von Feuchtersleben in 1845. There are different terms throughout the paper written by Beck et al. which might be little bit confusing. These terms are psychosis, psychotic symptom, psychotic disorder, schizophrenia spectrum disorder, and schizophrenia. How are these related to each other? In this lecture the focus will be on psychotic symptoms and psychotic disorders.
The Continuum Model of Psychopathology describes how everyone experiences anxiety and depression from time to time and that this is normal. There is some arbitrary point where there is so much anxiety and/or depression which can be pathological. This is the same for psychotic symptoms. About 10-20% of people in the population hear voices from time to time. This is not necessarily a sign of psychopathology. These voices can say nice and reassuring things, which gets you in the ‘safe area’ of the CMP, but these voices can also say you have to do dangerous things. In psychotic disorders this model works a little bit differently. In psychotic disorders we see the whole collection of symptoms and there is not a continuum anymore.
Psychotic symptoms
Positive symptoms are when there is something extra. Examples of these are delusions, hallucinations, disorganised thought and speech, and disorganised or catatonic behaviour (muscle stiffness). Negative symptoms are when there is something missing or when something as extremely decreased.
Delusions are cognitive phenomena. These are not things we feel or perceive, it’s something we think. Delusions are not self-perceptions. Examples of delusions:
Primary delusions: when delusions just happen to be there and we don’t know where they come form
Secondary delusion: when there is a reason
.....read moreWhat topics are discussed?
Depression
To receive a diagnosis of depression 5 (or more) of the following symptoms have been present during the same two-week period and represent a change from previous functioning. At least one of the symptoms is either 1 or two.
The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. The episode is not attributable to a substance (e.g. alcohol, drugs, medication) or to another medical condition.
Mood disorder: the mood spectrum
Within mood disorders there are multiple different levels/dimensions of mood disorders. These and their characteristics will be explained.
First, there are two types of depression which can be distinguished.
A unipolar depression is characterised by just depression. Two types of unipolar depression are major depressive disorder (shorter amount of time, at least two weeks, but very severe) and dysthymic depression/persistent depressive disorder (longer amount of time, at least two years).
A bipolar disorder is characterised by periods of depression and periods of mania. There is bipolar I disorder, in which there are periods of severe depression and periods of severe mania, meanwhile in bipolar II disorder (hypomania) is characterised by less severe periods of mania. The symptoms of mania are not severe enough to interfere with daily activities and they do not consist of hallucinations or illusions.
Mania is defined as a distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood. The episode must last at least one week. The mood must have at least three of the following symptoms:
A cyclothymic depression is characterised by numerous periods of symptoms of depression and periods of hypomania. The symptoms which are
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