What is this chapter about?

This chapter is about social cognition, which refers to the mental processes involved in perceiving, remembering, thinking about, and interpreting social information. This chapter covers several topics related to how people make sense of the social world. It discusses perception and interpretation of social stimuli, such as faces, emotions, and nonverbal cues, and social categorization, which is the process of grouping people into categories based on common characteristics, such as age, gender, race, or nationality. It also discusses stereotyping and prejudice, which are negative attitudes and beliefs about members of certain social groups. And the chapter explains how attribution theory can be used to explain how people explain behaviour of groups. The chapter also explains how interpersonal and intergroup relations work.

How do we seek the causes of behaviour?

People are naturally curious about the causes of other people's behaviour because understanding why someone behaves in a certain way can help us predict their future behaviour and even control it. Attributions are the explanations we give for why people behave the way they do, and they can be divided into two categories: internal (dispositional) and external (situational) causes.

Fritz Heider's attribution theory proposes that people make attributions based on three factors: consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus. Consistency refers to the extent to which a person's behaviour is consistent over time, while distinctiveness refers to the extent to which a person's behaviour is unique to a particular situation. Finally, consensus refers to the extent to which other people behave similarly in the same situation. By considering these factors, people can make more accurate attributions about the causes of someone's behaviour. For example, if someone consistently exhibits a certain behaviour only in one specific situation where others also exhibit the same behaviour, an external attribution may be more appropriate. However, if the behaviour is inconsistent and distinct to that person, an internal attribution may be more appropriate.

How do people attribute causality?

Harold Kelley's covariation model proposes that people make attributions by considering the presence or absence of covariation between a particular behaviour and the context in which it occurs. In other words, people observe whether the behaviour consistently occurs in the same context or situation, and whether it is unique to that context or situation. This helps people determine whether the cause of the behaviour is internal or external to the person exhibiting the behaviour.

In addition to using covariation to make attributions, people may also rely on schemas and stereotypes to make attributions. However, these can sometimes lead to errors and biases because they may not accurately reflect the individual differences and nuances of behaviour.

Attributional biases are errors or distortions in how people make attributions. In chapter 2, the fundamental attribution error, the actor-observer bias and the self-serving bias have been explained. These biases can lead to misunderstandings and conflicts in social interactions. Efforts to reduce biases can include increasing the awareness of them and providing feedback on them.

How has attribution theory been extended?

Bernard Weiner has developed his own version of attribution theory. According to Weiner’s attribution theory, people make attributions based on three dimensions: locus of control (internal or external), stability (stable or unstable), and controllability (controllable or uncontrollable).

Locus of control refers to the extent to which people attribute a behaviour to internal factors, such as their own abilities or traits, or to external factors, such as luck or the environment. Stability refers to the extent to which people see the causes of behaviour as enduring or temporary. Controllability refers to the extent to which people see the causes of behaviour as under their control or not.

Weiner's attribution theory has been extended to explain other phenomena beyond behaviour, including emotion and motivation. For example, people's attributions for success or failure can impact their emotions and motivation. If someone attributes their success to internal, stable, and controllable factors, they may experience positive emotions and be motivated to repeat the behaviour. However, if they attribute their failure to external, unstable, and uncontrollable factors, they may experience negative emotions and be less motivated to try again.

What are the practical applications of attribution theory?

Attribution theory has practical applications in a variety of settings, including education, health, and the workplace. By understanding the causes of behaviour, attribution theory can be used to address underlying issues and promote positive change.

In education, attribution theory can be used to help teachers understand why some students may be struggling or disengaged. Teachers can use this knowledge to create tailored interventions and support strategies that address the underlying causes of the student's behaviour.

In health, attribution theory can be used to help individuals understand and modify their health behaviours. For example, if someone is not adhering to a healthy diet and exercise routine, attribution theory can be used to help them identify the reasons for this behaviour and create a plan to address those underlying causes.

In the workplace, attribution theory can be used to understand employee behaviour and motivation. By identifying the causes of employee behaviour, employers can create a supportive work environment that encourages positive behaviour and addresses underlying issues that may be contributing to negative behaviour.

Overall, attribution theory can be used to understand and change behaviour by addressing the underlying causes of that behaviour. It can be a valuable tool for promoting positive change and improving outcomes in a lot of different settings.

How does intergroup attribution work?

People make attributions about groups as well as individuals, and these attributions can influence intergroup relations. Attribution refers to the process of explaining the causes of behaviour, either in terms of internal factors (such as personality or disposition) or external factors (such as situational or environmental factors).

There is an ingroup and there are outgroups. When people make attributions about members of their own group (the ingroup) versus members of other groups (the outgroup), they often exhibit biases that favor the ingroup and denigrate the outgroup. Some of these biases are:

• The in-group bias is the tendency to attribute positive qualities to members of one's own group and negative qualities to members of other groups. This bias can contribute to intergroup conflict and discrimination.
• The out-group homogeneity effect is the tendency to perceive members of outgroups as more similar to each other than they really are. This can lead to stereotypes and prejudice against outgroups.
• The ultimate attribution error refers to the tendency to explain negative behaviour by outgroup members in dispositional terms (such as personality or character) and positive behaviour by ingroup members in situational terms (such as the influence of the environment or circumstances). This bias can perpetuate intergroup conflict and prejudice. This bias was seen before in chapter 2. There it referred to the individual, the own self, but it is important to know that it can also refer to the own group.

What is societal attribution?